sees an Englishman except at Amiens or on the Somme。 Many of
them still have no idea of what the English are doing。。。。〃
〃Have I ever told you the story of compulsory Greek at Oxford and
Cambridge？〃 I asked abruptly。
〃What has that to do with it？〃
〃Or how two undistinguished civil service commissioners can hold
up the scientific education of our entire administrative class？〃
M。 Reinach protested further。
〃Because you are proposing to loosen the grip of a certain narrow
and limited class upon British affairs； and you propose it as
though it were a job as easy as rearranging railway fares or
sending a van to Calais。 That is the problem that every decent
Englishman is trying to solve to…day； every man of that Greater
Britain which has supplied these five million volunteers； these
magnificent temporary officers and all this wealth of munitions。
And the oligarchy is so invincibly fortified！ Do you think it
will let in Frenchmen to share its controls？ It will not even
let in Englishmen。 It holds the class schools； the class
universities； the examinations for our public services are its
class shibboleths； it is the church； the squirearchy； the
permanent army class； permanent officialdom； it makes every
appointment； it is the fountain of honour； what it does not know
is not knowledge； what it cannot do must not be done。 It rules
India ignorantly and obstructively； it will wreck the empire
rather than relinquish its ascendancy in Ireland。 It is densely
self…satisfied and instinctively monopolistic。 It is on our
backs； and with it on our backs we common English must bleed and
blunder to victory。。。。 And you make this proposal！〃
3
The antagonistic relations of the Anglican oligarchy with the
greater and greater…spirited Britain that thrust behind it in
this war are probably paralleled very closely in Germany；
probably they are exaggerated in Germany with a bigger military
oligarchy and a relatively lesser civil body under it。 This
antagonism is the oddest outcome of the tremendous /de…
militarisation/ of war that has been going on。 In France it
is probably not so marked because of the greater flexibility and
adaptability of the French culture。
All military peoplepeople； that is； professionally and
primarily militaryare inclined to be conservative。 For
thousands of years the military tradition has been a tradition of
discipline。 The conception of the common soldier has been a
mechanically obedient； almost dehumanised man； of the of officer
a highly trained autocrat。 In two years all this has been
absolutely reversed。 Individual quality； inventive organisation
and industrialism will win this war。 And no class is so innocent
of these things as the military caste。 Long accustomed as they
are to the importance of moral effect they put a brave face upon
the business； they save their faces astonishingly； but they are
no longer guiding and directing this war； they are being pushed
from behind by forces they never foresaw and cannot control。 The
aeroplanes and great guns have bolted with them； the tanks
begotten of naval and civilian wits； shove them to victory in
spite of themselves。
Wherever I went behind the British lines the officers were going
about in spurs。 These spurs at last got on my nerves。 They
became symbolical。 They became as grave an insult to the tragedy
of the war as if they were false noses。 The British officers go
for long automobile rides in spurs。 They walk about the trenches
in spurs。 Occasionally I would see a horse； I do not wish to be
unfair in this matter； there were riding horses sometimes within
two or three miles of the ultimate front； but they were rarely
used。
I do not say that the horse is entirely obsolescent in this war。
In was nothing is obsolete。 In the trenches men fight with
sticks。 In the Pasubio battle the other day one of the Alpini
silenced a machine gun by throwing stones。 In the West African
campaign we have employed troops armed with bows and arrows； and
they have done very valuable work。 But these are exceptional
cases。 The military use of the horse henceforth will be such an
exceptional case。 It is ridiculous for these spurs still to
clink about the modern battlefield。 What the gross cost of the
spurs and horses and trappings of the British army amount to； and
how many men are grooming and tending horses who might just as
well be ploughing and milking at home； I cannot guess； it must be
a total so enormous as seriously to affect the balance of the
war。
And these spurs and their retention are only the outward and
visible symbol of the obstinate resistance of the Anglican
intelligence to the clear logic of the present situation。 It is
not only the external equipment of our leaders that falls behind
the times； our political and administrative services are in the
hands of the same desolatingly inadaptable class。 The British
are still wearing spurs in Ireland； they are wearing them in
India； and the age of the spur has passed。 At the outset of this
war there was an absolute cessation of criticism of the military
and administrative castes； it is becoming a question whether we
may not pay too heavily in blundering and waste； in military and
economic lassitude； in international irritation and the
accumulation of future dangers in Ireland； Egypt； India； and
elsewhere； for an apparent absence of internal friction。 These
people have no gratitude for tacit help； no spirit of intelligent
service； and no sense of fair play to the outsider。 The latter
deficiency indeed they call /esprit de corps/ and prize it
as if it were a noble quality。
It becomes more and more imperative that the foreign observer
should distinguish between this narrower； older official Britain
and the greater newer Britain that struggles to free itself from
the entanglement of a system outgrown。 There are many Englishmen
who would like to say to the French and Irish and the Italians
and India； who indeed feel every week now a more urgent need of
saying； 〃Have patience with us。〃 The Riddle of the British is
very largely solved if you will think of a great modern liberal
nation seeking to slough an exceedingly tough and tight skin。。。。
Nothing is more illuminating and self…educational than to explain
one's home politics to an intelligent foreigner enquirer； it
strips off all the secondary considerations； the allusiveness；
the merely tactical considerations； the allusiveness； the merely
tactical considerations。 One sees the forest not as a confusion
of trees but as something with a definite shape and place。 I was
asked in Italy and in France； 〃Where does Lord Northcliffe come
into the British systemor Lloyd George？ Who is Mr。 Redmond？
Why is Lloyd George a Minister； and why does not Mr。 Redmond take
office？ Isn't there something called an ordnance department； and
why is there a separate ministry of munitions？ Can Mr。 Lloyd
George remove an incapable general？。。。〃
I found it M。 Joseph Reinach particularly penetrating and
persistent。 It is an amusing but rather difficult exercise to
recall what I tried to convey to him by way of a theory of
Britain。 He is by no means an uncritical listener。 I explained
that there is an 〃inner Britain；〃 official Britain； which is
Anglican or official Presbyterian； which at the outside in the
whole world cannot claim to speak for twenty million Anglican or
Presbyterian communicants； which monopolises official positions；
administration and honours in the entire British empire；
dominates the court； and； typically； is spurred and red…tabbed。
（It was just at this time that the spurs were most on my
nerves。）
This inner Britain； I went on to explain； holds tenaciously to
its positions of advantage； from which it is difficult to
dislodge it without upsetting the whole empire； and it insists
upon treating the rest of the four hundred millions who
constitute that empire as outsiders； foreigners； subject races
and suspected persons。
〃To you；〃 I said； 〃it bears itself with an appearance of faintly
hostile； faintly contemptuous apathy。 It is still so entirely
insular that it shudders at the thought of the Channel Tunnel。
This is the Britain which irritates and puzzles you so intensely
that you are quite unable to conceal these feelings from me。
Unhappily it is the Britain you see most of。 Well； outside this
official Britain is 'Greater Britain'the real Britain with
which you have to reckon in the future。〃 （From this point a
faint flavour of mysticism crept into my dissertation。 I found
myself talking with something in my voice curiously reminiscent
of those liberal Russians who set themselves to explain the
contrasts and contradictions of 〃official〃 Russia and 〃true〃
Russia。） 〃This Greater Britain；〃 I asserted； 〃is in a perpetual
conflict with official Britain； struggling to keep it up to its
work； shoving it towards its ends； endeavouring in spite of its
tenacious mischievousness of the privileged to keep the peace and
a common aim with the French and Irish and Italians and Russians
and Indians。 It is to that outer Britain that those Englishmen
you found so interesting and sympathetic； Lloyd George and Lord
Northcliffe； for example； belong。 It is the Britain of the great
effort； the Britain of the smoking factories and the torrent of
munitions； the Britain of the men and subalterns of the new
armies； the Britain which invents and thinks and achieves； and
stands now between German imperialism and the empire of the
world。 I do not want to exaggerate the quality of greater
Britain。 If the inner set are narrowly educated； the outer set
if often crudely educated。 If the inner set is so close knit as
to seem like a conspiracy； the outer set is so loosely knit as to
seem like a noisy confusion。 Greater Britain is only beginning
to realise itself and find itself。 For all its crudity there is
a giant spirit in it feeling its way towards the light。 It has
quite other ambitions for the ending of the war than some haggled
treaty of alliance with France and Italy； some advantage that
will invalidate German competition； it begins to realise newer
and wider sympathies； possibilities of an amalgamation of
i