the initiative of the lord of the manor； and Mr Schimanov has
produced a curious case； in which such re…allotment was made by
the direct order of a provincial Governor； who thought that
justice required that the number of shares； owned by each
household； should correspond to the number of souls composing it。
This happened not longer ago than the second half of the
seventeenth century in the Government of Kharkov； where
inequality of shares had been up to that time the general rule。
It is only by a general agreement between the people and the
authorities that we can explain the rapid expansion of the
present system。 We do not find any trace of such redistributions
before the end of the seventeenth century； when the borough of
Schouia began to make new allotments of ground every ten years。*
Having now finished with the past history of the Russian
village commune； we shall proceed to the study of its modern
arrangements。 These have formed the subject of very curious
investigations； which have been carried on during the last few
years by a number of young Russian economists； employed by the
elective councils or 〃zemstva〃 of our provinces。 Their work will
probably be as valuable to coming generations； as that performed
in England a century ago by Messrs Sinclair and Marshall； or as
that； which in our own day is still going on in India under the
enlightened supervision of the Indian Settlement Commissioners。 I
shall make free use of the rich material； which these skilful and
untiring workers have accumulated； in order to present to you a
picture of the prevailing system； the mir or village community of
to…day。
According to the law of emancipation promulgated the 19th
February 1861； the peasantry continue to possess an organisation
quite distinct from that of the other classes of society。 The
ancient 〃volost〃 （or mark） is preserved or rather revived； and
the villages are； as they were centuries ago； the administrative
units of which it is formed。 The volost and the village have
alike their elected authorities； the right of election being
based on a kind of universal suffrage； exercised by all the
grown…up men of the community。 But； differing in this from the
French 〃commune；〃 and the sections composing it； the Russian
volost and village accord no right of suffrage to persons
belonging to any other social position than that of peasant
（krestianine； a word； the first meaning of which was Christian）。
A merchant or a nobleman may reside for years in a village； he
will not thereby acquire any right to meddle with its internal
administration。 To explain the reason of such an anomaly； we must
keep in view the circumstances under which the law of 1861 was
promulgated。 its chief purpose was to liberate the serfs from
their dependence on the landed aristocracy。 The squire； the
〃pomeschick；〃 was the enemy against whom they had to fight； and
it was feared that he could easily regain the influence； which
had lasted for centuries； if he and the persons in his service
were allowed to have a vote in communal concerns。 It was
therefore to prevent a practical restoration of feudal power；
that the upper classes were debarred from all interference in
village matters。 But the legislators forgot the dangers； which
arise from the artificial isolation of an ill…educated class；
both for itself and for the other orders of society。 I know no
country； in which the enlightened classes have so little
opportunity of exercising that moral influence； without which no
social progress can be really achieved。 Not only the squire； be
he a nobleman or a merchant； but also the parish priest （the
pope）； are excluded by law from the right to vote in the village
assembly。 Questions concerning public instruction and public
health are daily discussed and settled by illiterate men； very
often to the injury of the community； without any reference to
the wishes and intentions of the more enlightened inhabitants；
whose interference in such cases would be considered a direct
infringement of the law。 This is certainly a great wrong； a wrong
which is clearly seen； both by society and by Government。 The
absenteeism of the higher classes and their dislike of that
country life which is so familiar in England； certainly finds its
chief root in what I may call the 〃privilegium odiosum〃 which is
attached to the status。 On the other hand； the ordinary peasant；
left without that natural control and guidance which the
enlightened classes are called upon to exercise towards the more
ignorant； is naturally led to look for protection and help to
those of his own rank who have succeeded in securing for
themselves a certain amount of material wealth。 This class of
rich peasants； known under the name of 〃koulaks；〃 which means a
man knowing how to keep money in his own hands； is as a rule no
better educated and far more selfish and immoral than the rest of
the country people。 The disintegrating influence； which such a
class exercises； has been rightly recognised in the nickname with
which the peasantry have dubbed its members； I mean that of
〃miroied。〃 or 〃eaters of the mir〃 it is to such speculators and
monopolists that the people are abandoned； it may be in the
secret hope of rendering impossible any good understanding
between them and the higher classes of the nation。 For no doubt；
such an understanding might become a serious obstacle in the way
of the all…powerful bureaucracy； which rules over the masses with
that insolence and harshness which are usually only met with in
the relations of conquerors to a conquered nation。 Instead of
giving the higher classes their share in the affairs of the
village； the Government has lately increased the number of
administrative oppressors； by instituting a new office； that of
〃Commander of the district。〃 This office is to be exclusively
filled by members of the hereditary nobility。 With no other
control over them； than that of the Governor of the province；
these newly…created officers are called upon to exercise a
boundless authority； both executive and judicial； over the
villages in their district。 There is no judicial appeal against
their doings； for they are at once police officers making their
own by…laws； and magistrates authorised to decide questions of
the infringement of these same by…laws； they are even the
executioners of their own sentences； for the right of flogging on
the spot； where the misdemeanour has been committed； is openly
recognised as belonging to them。
It is not difficult to foresee the effect which the
introduction of these new officers will have on the life of the
people。 Having been hitherto taught to look on the neighbouring
squire as a stranger； they will now come to consider him as their
natural enemy。
But let us go back to the study of the administrative
organisation of the Russian mir。
Every village is authorised to have its popular assembly。
This folkmote is the regular heir of the 〃vechas〃 and 〃koupas〃
still preserved； as we have seen； in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries； among the South…Western communes of
Russia； and； what is not less curious； also by the manorial
system during the same centuries。 When I say that all the adult
members of the village are called upon to vote at these popular
assemblies； I mean that this is the case in the majority of
Russian villages； in which the inhabitants are likewise partners
in the common lands of the village。 It is not the case in the
yearly increasing number of villages； in which the new…comers are
only permitted to reside in the commune； but are prevented from
sharing in the benefit which the commune derives from its
property in land。 In Germany and Switzerland； where centuries ago
new…comers； known under the name of 〃Beisaszen〃 or
〃Hintersaszen；〃 〃domicilies；〃 〃manants；〃 etc。； were allowed to
settle side by side with the proprietors of the common land （the
gemeingut or allmend）； two kinds of popular assemblies are known。
The one is composed of all the adult inhabitants without
distinction； the other of those who have a share in the common
land。 The first assembly makes by…laws； chooses officers； and
passes measures which concern the common good。 The second
administers the lands of the village； appoints those entrusted
with the care of them； and distributes to the several partners
their shares in the commons。 The laws of some Swiss cantons；
therefore； establish a difference between the 〃politische
Gemeinde；〃 or commune； composed of all the male inhabitants； and
the 〃burgerliche Gemeinde；〃 to which all the sharers in the
common land； male and female alike； belong。 Now this difference
is unknown in Russia； where political rights are exclusively
exercised by those inhabitants who are at the same time sharers
in the common land。
The officer to whom the assembly entrusts the administration
of the village is called the village elder。 We find the same
officer in the old Russian communes； both in the so…called 〃black
hundreds〃 in other words； in the villages inhabited by
free…commoners and also on the lands of manorial lords。
Monastic charters； among other documents； very frequently mention
the election of these officers； who are sometimes called；
especially in the South…Western communes； 〃bourgmistr〃 a name
evidently derived from the German burgermeister； and showing； to
a certain extent； the influence exercised by German municipal law
on the local organisation of Lithuania and Little Russia。
It is the village elder； the starosta； who represents the
commune in its relations with the district and provincial
authorities。 It is he who collects the taxes； exercises some
supervision over the way in which the commune keeps in repair the
roads and pubic buildings； sees that the law concerning
obligatory fire insurance is obeyed； and carries into effect the
various administrative enactments which the police authorities
and the local assemblies of the zemstvo are very liberal in
creating。 But the most important functions of the commune； that
of apportioning personal taxation and making periodical
assessments of common land； are performed by the popular assembly
or mir。 Two…thirds of the whole number of voters are emp