every one of the meadows。 But I need not insist on the various
aspects under which the system of re…allotments may present
itself。 It is not my purpose to give you a complete description
of the various forms which the village community may take； but a
general picture of all its characteristic features。
Amongst these I must place the control exercised by the
village authorities over the performance at the proper time of
each part of agricultural labour。 The strips of the several
households being scattered over the whole village area； and
intermixed with those of their neighbours； the same system of
agriculture must of necessity be followed by all。 The system in
use； as I have already told you； is that of the three fields； the
winter； the summer； and the fallow； the fields becoming common
pasture after the gathering in of the harvest。 All agricultural
labour must therefore begin and end at fixed periods； and the
different households which constitute the village must do their
ploughing； sowing； harrowing； mowing and reaping； precisely at
the same time。 The authorities of the village are empowered to
insist upon this； the 〃Flurzwang；〃 to use a well known German
expression； is a necessary condition of this kind of agrarian
communism； which is embodied in the system of the mir。
The performance at its proper time of each part of
agricultural labour could not be attained if the commoners did
not help one another in its accomplishment。 This is the real
origin of the obligation which compels every peasant to help his
neighbours in mowing and reaping。 This sort of communal help；
regularly performed at harvest time； is known in Russia under the
name of 〃village assistance。〃 It was under like conditions that
the medieval lovebones； or love boons （angariae autumni）； took
their rise in England。
The feeling of mutual dependence； which has its origin in the
common ownership and use of land； is the source from which
springs another curious institution。 Certain agricultural lands
remain undivided and are cultivated by the combined work of the
whole village； their yearly produce being regularly brought to
the common store and equally distributed among all in case of
dearth。
In Russian villages there are no special 〃poor〃 or 〃school
lands〃 （Armen…und Schulguter）； similar to those of Switzerland or
Germany； although the question has been recently raised as to the
desirability of assigning certain shares of the common lands to
the schoolmaster； he being authorised to cultivate them with the
help of his pupils。 This plan for turning the schoolmaster into
an agricultural labourer belongs to the number of those measures；
by which the reactionary party hope to prevent the badly paid
village schoolmasters from becoming what they call 〃revolutionary
dreamers。〃 I am happy to say that it has not yet met with the
support of the Government。
I now come to the capital question of the advantages and
disadvantages； which the system of village communities presents；
and which will of course exercise a decisive influence as to its
future。 There is no question so much discussed； and I may say； so
often misunderstood by my countrymen； as that of the superiority
or inferiority of the existing system in comparison with that of
small holdings。
Both socialists and reactionaries have taken hold of the
question； and both parties try to work it out in favour of their
own systems。 The value which they attach to the system of the mir
differs considerably。 What the socialists admire in it are the
fruitful germs which they suppose it to contain of a future
reorganisation of society on their own model。 As to the
Slavophils； they think it perfect in its present form； and never
tire of repeating a saying which； with doubtful authenticity； is
attributed to the great Cavour： 〃Russia will revolutionise the
world with her system of the mir。〃
To an impartial observer the village communal system appears
to be a compound of small advantages and great disadvantages； the
advantages are rather of a moral； and the disadvantages of an
economic character。 It encourages； no doubt； to a much greater
degree than the system of private holdings； the feeling of mutual
interdependence and the inclination to mutual help； without which
no society can exist。 But it is a manifest error to speak of this
system as a serious barrier to pauperism。 For； although the
commoner is prevented by law from alienating his share； he may；
and often does； dispose of it in favour of some rich neighbour；
who in time of want has offered to pay the amount of the
commoner's taxes on condition of having the use of his land。 If
the Slavophils were right in their opinion； that； thanks to the
system of the mir； pauperism was impossible in Russia； we should
certainly not hear daily of the so…called 〃Koulaks〃 eating up the
mir； or； what comes to the same thing； sacrificing the interests
of the community to their own。
The economic disadvantages which the system presents are so
evident that I need scarcely insist upon them。 Instead of giving
my own opinion on this subject； I prefer to quote the words of a
Russian economist； who is far from belonging to the much decried
Manchester School。 〃Agrarian communism； as it is applied in
Russia；〃 says Professor Ivanukov； 〃is a hindrance to the
investment of capital in agriculture； and to the introduction of
a more thorough； a better and more remunerative system of
cultivation； for the strips belonging to this or that homestead
will in case of each new division pass into strange hands； so
that the peasant does not find it to his interest to lay out
money which could only be recovered during a long term of
possession。〃 It is true that local inquirers have been able to
produce several instances in which peasant commoners have
introduced a somewhat thorough system of grass sowing；* but we
must not forget that this has been done during a period when the
readjustment of lots was rare。
We must not forget； too； one great disadvantage of the mir
system； which consists in the fact that wherever it exists； the
pieces of land belonging to the same holder are 〃scattered about
on all sides of the township； one in this furlong and another in
that； intermixed； and it might almost be said；〃 writes Mr
Seebohm； 〃entangled together as though some one blindfold had
thrown them about on all sides of him。〃 *
Several Russian economists have shown that this defect is not
peculiar to the mir； but is to be found in the system of small
holdings；* as if these small holdings had not inherited it from
their direct predecessor； the village community。 What is；
however； of far more importance than the opinion of this or that
student of the mir is the fact that it is gradually and
spontaneously breaking to pieces。 There is no doubt that a
general redistribution of shares has not taken place； at least in
the more fertile area of the black soil； since the year of the
peasants' emancipation。 It is difficult to explain this solely by
the dislike of the provincial and district administrators to the
system； the unwillingness of the powerful minority of rich
peasants to proceed to a new division is recognised on all sides；
and quite suffices to explain the difficulties encountered in the
way of a fresh readjustment。 For we must remember that the law
requires that two…thirds of the voters shall agree on any
decision on this subject； and the Koulaks； although in a
minority； are sure to have influence enough among the poorer
peasants； who are their debtors； to obtain their own way in a
folkmote。
The fact that a movement in favour of a re…division of the
common lands has arisen in the northern and central provinces；
where the soil is poor； and the in come which the peasant
receives from his share does not cover the amount of the taxes he
has to pay； can certainly not be adduced in favour of the idea of
a further spontaneous development of Russian agrarian communism。
The majority of the peasants insist on such a readjustment；
so that they may have fewer taxes to pay； and not because they
long to see the great principle of equality become the ruling
power of the world。 If we wish to point to a really spontaneous
movement in the sphere of land…tenure； it must certainly be to
that which has induced thousands of peasants to pay back the
money which was advanced to them by the Government in the year of
their emancipation to enable them to become the free proprietors
of the soil。 I have already mentioned the fact that five million
roubles have been repaid to the Crown； it is interesting to note
the rate at which this repayment has been made。 From 1861 to
1868； according to Mr Keuszler； the amount of money paid by
persons wishing to exchange their common rights for private
property； hardly formed the seven…hundredth part of the whole
sum。 From 1868 to 1872 it had amounted to 10 per cent； from 1873
to 1877 to 33 1/2 per cent； the rest of the sum； or 55 per cent；
having been paid back during the years 1877 to 1881。*
If this steady increase is not considered a conclusive proof；
I must decline to bring forward any other； not even the
disappearance of village communities in the neighbourhood of the
larger towns； such as St。 Petersburg； Moscow； and even Voroneg；
owing to the fact that in their neighbourhood high farming pays
best； and that this high farming is impossible without a change
in the system of land property。
How long village communities will exist is not a question
easy to answer。 The Government may certainly prevent for a time
their dissolution by some artificial measures； like those taken
in relation to the undivided household。 A proposal has even been
made to declare that the common…land shall not become private
property even after the repayment of the whole sum which its
holder owes to the Government。 Such a measure might； indeed； long
arrest the spontaneous movement which produces the dissolution of
this archaic form of agrarian communism。
If left to itself； it will certainly be maintained in those
remote parts of Russia where the population is still so small as
to retard agricultural progress； but it is likely soon to
disappear