the origin of the distinction of ranks- 第34部分

m　at　pleasure。　He　gave　them　no　wages　beside　their　maintenance；　and　he　allowed　them　to　have　no　property；　but　claimed　to　his　own　use　whatever；　by　their　labour　or　by　any　other　means；　they　happened　to　acquire。　　　　　Thus　the　practice　of　domestic　slavery　appears　to　have　been　early　established　among　the　nations　of　antiquity；　among　the　Egyptians；　the　Phoenicians；　the　Jews；　the　Babylonians；　the　Persians；　the　Greek；　and　the　Romans。　　　　　The　same　practice　obtains　at　present　among　all　those　tribes　of　barbarians；　in　different　parts　of　the　world；　with　which　we　have　any　correspondence。　　　　　There　are　indeed　but　few　slaves　among　the　greater　part　of　the　savages　of　America；　because；　from　the　situation　of　that　people；　they　have　no　opportunity　of　accumulating　wealth　for　maintaining　any　number　of　servants。　As；　in　ordinary　cases；　they　find　it　burdensome　to　give　subsistence　to　an　enemy　whom　they　have　subdued；　they　are　accustomed　to　indulge　their　natural　ferocity　by　putting　him　to　death；　even　in　cold　blood。　If　ever　they　behave　with　humanity　to　their　captives；　it　is　only　when　being　greatly　reduced　by　the　calamities　of　war；　or　by　uncommon　accidents；　they　are　under　the　immediate　necessity　of　recruiting　their　strength；　and　as　this　rarely　happens；　the　persons　whose　lives　have　been　thus　preserved；　are　not　distinguished　from　the　children　of　the　family　into　which　they　are　brought；　but　are　formally　adopted　into　the　place　of　the　deceased　relations；　whose　loss　they　are　intended　to　supply。（1*）　　　　　The　Tartars；　on　the　other　hand；　who　have　great　possessions　in　herds　and　flocks；　find　no　difficulty　in　supporting　a　number　of　domestics。　For　this　reason　they　commonly　preserve　their　captives；　with　a　view　of　reaping　the　benefit　that　may　arise　from　their　labour；　and　the　servitude　established　among　that　people　disposes　them　to　treat　their　enemies　with　a　degree　of　moderation；　which　otherwise　could　hardly　be　expected　from　their　fierce　and　barbarous　dispositions。　　　　　The　same　observation　may　be　extended　to　the　negroes　upon　the　coast　of　Guinea；　who；　from　their　intercourse　with　the　nations　of　Europe；　derive　yet　greater　advantages　from　sparing　the　lives　of　their　enemies。　At　the　same　time　it　cannot　be　doubted；　that；　as　the　encounters　of　those　barbarians　have　upon　this　account　become　less　bloody；　their　wars　have　been　rendered　more　frequent。　From　the　great　demand　for　slaves　to　supply　the　European　market；　they　have　the　same　motives　to　seize　the　person　of　their　neighbours；　which　may　excite　the　inhabitants　of　other　countries　to　rob　one　another　of　their　property。　Section　II　The　usual　effects　of　opulence　and　civilized　manners；　with　regard　to　the　treatment　of　servants　　　　　These　institutions　and　customs　are　such　as　might　be　expected　from　the　limited　experience；　as　well　as　from　the　rude　manners　of　an　early　age。　By　reducing　his　servants　into　a　state　of　slavery；　the　master　appears；　at　first　sight；　to　reap　the　highest　advantage　from　their　future　labour　and　service。　But　when　a　people　become　civilized；　and　when　they　have　made　considerable　progress　in　commerce　and　manufactures；　one　would　imagine　they　should　entertain　more　liberal　views；　and　be　influenced　by　more　extensive　considerations　of　utility。　　　　　A　slave；　who　receives　no　wages　in　return　for　his　labour；　can　never　be　supposed　to　exert　much　vigour　or　activity　in　the　exercise　of　any　employment。　He　obtains　a　livelihood　at　any　rate；　and　by　his　utmost　assiduity　he　is　able　to　procure　no　more。　As　he　works　merely　in　consequence　of　the　terror　in　which　he　is　held；　it　may　be　imagined　that　he　will　be　idle　as　often　as　he　can　with　impunity。　This　circumstance　may　easily　be　overlooked　in　a　country　where　the　inhabitants　are　strangers　to　improvement。　But　when　the　arts　begin　to　flourish；　when　the　wonderful　effects　of　industry　and　skill　in　cheapening　commodities；　and　in　bringing　them　to　perfection；　become　more　and　more　conspicuous；　it　must　be　evident　that　little　profit　can　be　drawn　from　the　labour　of　a　slave；　who　has　neither　been　encouraged　to　acquire　that　dexterity；　nor　those　habits　of　application；　which　are　essentially　requisite　in　the　finer　and　more　difficult　branches　of　manufacture。　　　　　This　may　be　illustrated　from　the　price　of　labour　in　our　West…India　islands；　where　it　will　not　be　doubted　that　the　inhabitants　are　at　great　pains　to　prevent　the　idleness　of　their　slaves。　In　Jamaica；　the　yearly　labour　of　a　field…negro；　when　he　is　upheld　to　the　master；　is　rated　at　no　more　than　nine　pounds；　currency　of　that　island。　When　a　negro　has　been　instructed　in　the　trade　of　a　carpenter；　the　value　of　his　yearly　labour　will　amount　at　the　utmost　to　thirty…six　pounds；　whereas　a　free　man　is　capable　of　earning　seventy　pounds　yearly　in　the　very　same　employment。（2*）　　　　　It　is　further　to　be　observed；　that；　in　a　polished　nation；　the　acquisition　of　slaves　is　commonly　much　more　expensive　than　among　a　simple　and　barbarous　people。　　　　　After　a　regular　government　has　been　established；　the　inhabitants　of　a　country　are　restrained　from　plundering　one　another；　and；　under　the　authority　of　the　magistrate；　individuals　of　the　lowest　rank　are　sufficiently　secured　from　oppression　and　injustice。　In　proportion　to　the　improvement　of　commerce　and　manufactures；　the　demand　for　labour　is　increased；　and　greater　encouragement　is　given　to　industry。　The　poor　have　more　resources　for　procuring　a　livelihood；　by　such　employments　as　are　productive　of　little　subjection　or　dependence。　By　degrees；　therefore；　people　of　inferior　condition　are　freed　from　the　necessity　of　becoming　slaves　in　order　to　obtain　subsistence；　and　the　ancient　agreement　by　which　a　free　person　resigned　his　liberty；　and　was　reduced　under　the　power　of　a　master；　being　rendered　more　and　more　unusual；　is　at　length　regarded　as　inconsistent　with　the　natural　rights　of　a　citizen。　　　　　Thus　among　the　Romans；　during　the　commonwealth；　and　even　under　the　emperors；　no　free　citizen　was　allowed；　by　contract；　to　become　the　slave　of　another。（3*）　It　was　consistent　with　the　refined　laws　of　that　people；　which　rescinded　those　unequal　contracts　where　one　party　had　gained　an　undue　advantage；　or　even　obtained　an　unreasonable　profit　at　the　expense　of　the　other；　to　declare　that　a　bargain　by　which　a　man　surrendered　all　his　rights　to　a　master；　and　consequently　received　nothing　in　return；　should　have　no　support　or　encouragement　from　the　civil　magistrate。　　　　　As　men　begin　to　experience　the　happy　effects　of　cultivating　the　arts　of　peace；　and　are　less　frequently　employed　in　acts　of　hostility；　they　have　less　occasion　to　acquire　any　number　of　slaves　by　captivity。　The　influence　of　civilization　upon　the　temper　and　dispositions　of　a　people　has　at　the　same　time　a　tendency　to　produce　a　total　revolution　in　the　manner　of　conducting　their　military　operations。　That　ancient　institution；　by　which　every　one　who　is　able　to　bear　arms　is　required　to　appear　in　the　field　at　his　own　charges；　becomes　too　heavy　a　burden　upon　those　who　are　enervated　with　pleasure；　or　engaged　in　lucrative　professions；　and　the　custom　of　employing　mercenary　troops　in　defence　of　the　country　is　therefore　gradually　established。　As　an　army　of　this　kind　is　maintained　by　the　government；　as　the　soldiers　receive　constant　pay；　which　is　understood　to　be　a　full　equivalent　for　their　service；　they　appear　to　have　no　title　to　the　extraordinary　emoluments　arising　from　the　spoil　of　the　enemy；　and　therefore　the　captives；　though　reduced　into　servitude；　are　no　longer　held　as　belonging　to　those　particular　persons　by　whom　they　have　been　subdued；　but　to　the　public；　at　whose　expense　and　hazard　the　war　is　supported。（4*）　　　　　We　may　take　notice　of　a　similar　change　in　the　acquisition　of　slaves　by　the　sentence　of　a　judge。　In　rude　times；　the　chief　aim　of　punishment　was　to　gratify　the　resentment　of　the　private　party；　and　if　a　person　accused　of　a　crime　had　been　found　guilty；　he　was；　for　that　reason；　frequently　delivered　up　as　a　slave　to　the　plaintiff。　But　upon　greater　improvement　of　manners；　the　interpositions　of　the　magistrate　came　to　be　influenced　more　by　considerations　of　general　utility；　and　as　the　crimes　of　individuals　were　principally　considered　in　the　light　of　offences　against　the　society；　it　was　agreeable　to　this　idea　that　a　criminal　should　become　the　slave　of　the　public；　and　should　either　be　employed　in　public　works；　or　disposed　of　in　the　manner　most　advantageous　to　the　revenue　of　the　community。　　　　　The　inhabitants　of　a　civilized　country；　being　thus　in　a　great　measure　deprived　of　the　primitive　modes　of　acquisition；　are　obliged　to　acquire　the　bulk　of　their　slaves；　either　by　a　purchase　from　their　poorer　and　more　barbarous　neighbours；　or　by　propagating　and　rearing　from　the　original　stock　which　they　possess。　In　such　a　situation；　therefore；　when　we　compute　the　expense　attending　the　labour　of　a　slave；　not　only　the　charge　of　his　maintenance；　but　also　the　money　laid　out　in　the　first　acquisition；　together　with　all　the　hazard　to　which　his　life　is　exposed；　must　necessarily　be　taken　into　the　account。　　　　　When　these　circumstances　are　duly　considered；　it　will　be　found　that　the　work　of　a　slave；　who　receives　nothing　but　a　bare　subsistence；　is　really　dearer　than　that　of　a　free　man；　to　whom　constant　wages　are　given　in　proportion　to　his　industry。　　　　　Unhappily；　men　have　seldom　been　in　a　condition　to　examine　this　point　with　proper　attention；　and　with　sufficient　impartiality。　The　practice　of　slavery　being　introduced　in　an　early　age；　is　afterwards　regarded　with　that　blind　prepossession　which　is　commonly　acquired　in　favour　of　ancient　usages：　its　inconveniences　are　overlooked；　and　every　innovation；　with　respect　to　it；　is　considered　as　a　dangerous　measure。　The　possession　of　power　is　too　agreeable　to　be　easily　relinquished。　Few　people　will　venture　upon　a　new　experiment；　and；　amidst　the　general　prejudices　of　a　country；　fewer　still　are　capable　of　making　it　with　fairness。　We　find；　accordingly；　that　this　institution；　however　inconsistent　with　the　rights　of　humanity；　however　pernicious　and　contrary　to　the　true　interest　of　the　master；　has　generally　remained　in　those　countries　where　it　was　once　established；　and　has　been　handed　down　from　one　generation　to　another；　during　all　the　successive　improvements　of　society；　in　knowledge；　arts；　and　manufactures。　　　　　The　advancement　of　a　nation；　in　these　particulars；　is　even　frequently　attended　with　greater　severity　in　the　treatment　of　the　slaves。　The　simplic