ireland and the South Slavonian principalities。
The term siabri is not the only one used by Old Russian
writers to designate the members of such a household。 They are
often spoken of in the financial surveys of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries under the characteristic name of hearth；
pechische。 The so…called piszoviia knigi； a kind of survey very
like the poll…tax rolls still preserved in the Record Office；
speak of the hearth as the unit of taxation。 The pechische of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries corresponds to the feu of
Burgundy and is even known by that name in some of the northern
provinces of Russia。 The private charters； which are still
preserved by more than one family in the Government of Archangel；
some of which were drawn up in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries； when speaking of the house community always make use
of the term ognische； a word which means the hearthfire； thus
showing that what constituted the tie between members of the same
household was their cooking food at the same hearth。
Thus far we have shown the high antiquity of the institution
which we are engaged in examining。 Let us now proceed to the
study of its characteristic features。
All over Russia； but particularly within the boundaries of
the old Muscovite empire； communities of persons belonging to the
same kindred and living under the same roof are still in
existence。 The number of persons belonging to these communities
varies from ten； or even less； to fifty and upwards。 In the
government of Koursk； a community composed of about sixty persons
has recently been noticed by Professor Samokvasov。 But such cases
are rare； and the number of persons living in common does not； as
a rule； exceed twenty or thirty。 Among them we find the
grandfather and grandmother； the father and mother； sons and
daughters； grandsons and granddaughters； brothers and sisters；
nephews and nieces； with such other persons as may be united to
them by ties of marriage； as daughters…in…law in right of their
husbands； and sons…in…law in right of their wives。 Persons
incorporated into the family； working for the common good； and
having shares in the family profits are often mentioned by
writers on Russian folk…lore。 Besides these others may perchance
have become members； as for instance persons adopted into it； or
the children of a widow contracting a new marriage with a member
of the community； who； on account of her unwillingness to be
separated from them； come to live with her under the roof of her
new husband。
From this we see how various may have been the origin of
those who were members of the Undivided Family。
Blood…relationship； in the proper sense of the word； is not
always required； it suffices that the members be considered as
relatives； adoption takes the place of actual descent； and the
fact of sharing the daily work very often gives a stranger the
rights of a relative。
Undivided households are； as a rule； governed by the oldest
members of the community； but in case of prolonged illness or
want of mental power the oldest member may be superseded by
another； sometimes elected by the whole community。 The name given
to the house…elder is bolschack； which means the greatest in
power。 His authority and functions perfectly correspond to those
belonging； in a Servian zadruga； to the so…called 〃domachin。〃
Like the domachin； he is assisted in the difficult task of
governing the female part of the house community by some aged
woman； known by the name of 〃bolschoucha〃 （the greatest woman）；
who is not always his wife。
It would be a gross error to look upon the house…elder of a
Russian undivided family as holding the same position as the
Roman paterfamilias。 The house…elder has neither the authority
nor the amount of independence enjoyed by the paterfamilias in
the administration of the family fortune。 The Russian
house…elder； like the Servian domachin； is but primus inter
pares。 All the grown…up members of the community constitute a
sort of family council； whose advice must be regularly asked in
matters of importance。 The domachin has no right to dispose of
the family possessions without the unanimous consent of all the
persons for whom he acts。 When I say all； I mean of course only
the grown…up members； women as well as men。 The women's opinion；
though of less importance than the men's； is not to be
disregarded； the more so on account of the influence which they
exercise on their husbands。
The functions of the house…elder are of very various kinds。
We must mention first of all his exclusive right to represent the
community before the executive and judicial authorities of the
village and district （selo i volost）。 It is he who regularly
appears in the courts； either to answer the complaints against
the community； or to insist on the recognition of rights which
have been violated。 It is to him also that the Government
officials address their demand for the speedy payment of the
taxes。 It is his duty to attend to the execution of the law
concerning military service； and to the carrying out of the
different orders issued by the local and provincial authorities。
As to the duties which the domachin has to perform in
connection with the interior administration of the household；
they are of two different kinds： they concern either the persons
who compose the house community； or the undivided property owned
by them。 All disputes arising between co…partners are settled by
the house…elder； who is regularly assisted in such cases by the
family council。 His interference in the relations between husband
and wife； between parents and children； sometimes exerts a highly
beneficial influence； in so far as it prevents cases of gross
abuse in the exercise of marital and paternal power； but it often
happens on the other hand that disputes between married couples
are embittered by the partiality of the house…elder for one or
other party。 On more than one occasion husbands have been known
to inflict severe punishment on their wives because they were
ordered to do so by the head of the community； instances； too；
are very frequent in which the wife； encouraged by the support of
the house…elder； disregards the rights of her husband； and lives
in almost open adultery with the person whose chief duty ought to
consist in the maintenance of a high moral standard amongst the
persons over whom he exercises authority。
The house…elder has also； if not a casting vote； at least a
consultative voice in such matters as the choice of a wife； or
the giving of a daughter in marriage。 As the amount of the dowry
is always fixed by the family council； presided over by its
chief； his decision very often settles the question as to the
acceptance or refusal of the offer of marriage。 It is also the
duty of the house…elder to find occupation for the unemployed
members of the household。 If the community is too large to allow
of all its members being employed in agricultural labour； the
family finds it advantageous to permit a certain number of its
members to seek their fortunes abroad； either in private service
or as small traders or pedlars； travelling about the country with
packs on their backs。 Such petty hawkers； verv numerous in our
Eastern provinces； are known in Russia under the various names of
〃ofeni；〃 〃chodebocschiki；〃 〃korobhniki；〃 and 〃prosoli。〃 They
render a real service to the country population； which； at least
in places far distant from railways and markets； would without
them have no means of procuring the most simple necessaries of
life。
Young orphans find in the person of the house…elder their
legal guardian； their moral and mental education depends solely
on him； it is be who sends them to school； finds employment for
them in the fields； or apprentices them to the different village
artisans to learn a trade by which to earn a future livelihood。
As the administration of the family fortune； as I have
already said； falls on the house…elder； he makes all arrangements
that are needful to secure that every kind of agricultural labour
shall be properly done； assigning to each his daily share in the
ploughing； harrowing； and sowing of the fields； thrashing of the
corn； and such like occupations。 If the number of hands of which
the family can dispose is not sufficient to answer all its
requirements； he hires others to help them。 When the time comes
for the exchange of harvest produce for such articles as the
peasants may need； it is again the business of the house…elder to
sign contracts of sale or exchange。 Those under his charge have
in such cases the right to control actions and to demand a full
account of all the moneys received or paid by him。 This control
is particularly useful on those somewhat rare occasions when； in
consequence of a series of bad harvests； the family is obliged to
dispose of a part of its estate。 On such occasions the whole
family has a voice in the selection of the purchases。 Their
unanimous consent； plainly expressed in the act of sale； is
necessary in order to render it legal。
The resources by which the family provides for all its
requirements are of different kinds： some are derived from the
lands it owns； others from the private earnings of its members。
Widely separated though some of its members may be from the
family； the travelling pedlar； the labourer who has hired himself
out on some distant farm； the soldier and sailor fighting in some
foreign country or sailing to some distant land； nevertheless
they all look upon it a duty to allow their family to share in
their earnings。 On its part the House Community does not object
to maintain the wife and children of an absent member； or to pay
the amount of his yearly taxes。 The communistic character of the
great Russian family is shown by the ease with which the
household gets its members who are temporarily separated from it
to pay over to it the gains which they make。 These； as a rule；
make no claim to keep their earnings for themselves。 The peculium
castrense and quasi castrense； formerly known to the ancient
Romans； appear still to exist among the members of the Russian
house communities of the present day。 i