vill3- 第23部分

　or　little　to　do　with　subjection；　and　in　which　the　free　landowners　joined　for　mutual　support　and　organisation。　It　is　not　impossible　to　assume；　on　the　other　hand；　that　in　many　cases　the　free　tenant　was　left　in　the　manorial　group　because　he　had　begun　by　being　an　unfree　and　therefore　a　necessary　member　of　it。　All　such　suppositions　seem　prima　facie　admissible　and　reasonable　enough；　and　at　the　same　time　it　is　clear；　that　by　deciding　in　favour　of　one　of　them　or　by　the　relative　importance　assigned　to　each　we　shall　very　materially　influence　the　solution　of　interesting　historical　problems；　in　order　to　appreciate　rightly　the　position　of　the　free　tenements　in　the　manor　we　have　to　examine　whether　these　tenements　are　all　of　one　and　the　same　kind　or　not；　and　this　must　be　done　not　from　the　legal　standpoint　whence　it　has　already　been　reviewed；　but　in　connexion　with　the　practical　management　of　the　estate。　I　think　that　a　survey　of　the　different　meanings　which　the　term　bears　in　our　documents　must　lead　us　to　recognise　three　chief　distinctions：　first　there　is　free　land　which　once　formed　part　of　the　demesne　but　has　been　separated　from　it；　then　there　is　the　land　held　by　villagers　outside　the　regular　arrangements　of　the　rural　community；　and　lastly　there　are　ancient　free　holdings　of　the　same　shape　as　the　servile　tenements；　though　differing　from　the　latter　in　legal　character。　Each　class　will　naturally　fall　into　subdivisions。（37*）　　　　　Under　the　first　head　it　is　to　be　observed　that　domanial　land　very　often　lost　its　direct　connexion　with　the　lord's　household；　and　was　given　away　to　dependent　people　on　certain　conditions。　One　of　the　questions　addressed　to　the　juries　by　the　Glastonbury　inquest　of　1189　was　prompted　by　this　practice：　it　was　asked　what　demesne　land　had　been　given　out　under　free　agreement　or　servile　conditions；　and　whether　it　was　advantageous　to　keep　to　the　arrangement　or　not。　One　of　the　reasons　which　lay　at　the　root　of　the　process　has　been　already　touched　upon。　Grants　of　domanial　land　occur　commonly　in　return　for　services　rendered　in　the　administration　of　the　manor：　reeves；　ploughmen；　herdsmen；　woodwards　are　sometimes　recompensed　in　this　manner　instead　of　being　liberated　from　the　duties　incumbent　on　their　holding。　A　small　rent　was　usually　affixed　to　the　plot　severed　from　the　demesne；　and　the　whole　arrangement　may　be　regarded　as　very　like　an　ordinary　lease。　An　attenuated　form　of　the　same　thing　may　be　noticed　when　some　officer　or　servant　was　permitted　to　use　certain　plots　of　domanial　land　during　the　tenure　of　his　office。　It　happened；　for　instance；　that　a　cotter　was　entrusted　to　take　care　of　a　team　of　oxen　belonging　to　the　lord　or　obliged　to　drive　his　plough。　He　might　be　repaid　either　by　leave　to　use　the　manorial　plough　on　his　own　land　on　specified　occasions；　or　else　by　an　assignment　to　him　of　the　crop　on　certain　acres　of　the　home　farm。（38*）　Such　privileges　are　sometimes　granted　to　villagers　who　do　not　seem　to　be　personally　employed　in　the　manorial　administration；　but　such　cases　are　rare；　and　must　be　due　to　special　reasons　which　escape　our　notice。　　　　　It　is　quite　common；　on　the　other　hand；　to　find　deficiencies　in　the　normal　holdings　made　up　from　the　demesne；　e。g。　a　group　of　peasants　hold　five　acres　apiece　in　the　fields；　and　one　of　the　set　cannot　receive　his　full　share：　the　failing　acres　are　supplied　by　the　demesne。　Even　an　entire　virgate　or　half…virgate　may　be　formed　in　this　way。（39*）　Sometimes　a　plot　of　the　lord's　land　is　given　to　compensate　the　bad　quality　of　the　peasant's　land。（40*）　Of　course；　such　surrenders　of　the　demesne　soil　were　by　no　means　prompted　by　disinterested　philanthropy。　They　were　made　to　enable　the　peasantry　to　bear　its　burdens；　and　may…be　to　get　rid　of　patches　of　bad　soil　or　ground　that　was　inconveniently　situated。（41*）　In　a　number　of　cases　these　grants　of　demesne　are　actual　leases；　and　probably　the　result　of　hard　bargains。　　　　　However　this　might　be；　we　find　alongside　of　the　estate　farmed　for　the　lord's　own　account　a　great　portion　of　the　demesne　conceded　to　the　villagers。　The　term　'inland；'　which　ought　properly　to　designate　all　the　land　belonging　directly　to　the　lord；　is　sometimes　applied　to　plots　which　have　been　surrendered　to　the　peasantry；　and　so　distinguishes　them　from　the　regular　customary　holdings。（42*）　Such　concessions　of　demesne　land　were　not　meant　to　create　freehold　tenements。　Their　tenure　was　precarious；　the　right　of　resumption　was　more　expressly　recognised　in　the　case　of　such　plots　than　in　that　of　any　other　form　of　rural　occupation；　but　the　rights　thus　acquired　tended　to　become　perpetual；　like　everything　else　in　this　feudal　world；　and　as　they　were　founded　on　agreement　and　paid　for　with　money　rents；　their　transformation　into　permanent　tenures　led　to　an　increase　of　free　tenements　and　not　of　villainage。　We　catch　a　glimpse　of　the　process　in　the　Domesday　of　St。　Paul's。　In　1249　a　covenant　was　made　between　the　Chapter　of　the　Cathedral　and　its　villagers　of　the　manor　of　Beauchamp　in　Essex：　in　consequence　of　the　agreement　all　the　concessions　of　demesne　land　which　had　been　made　by　the　farmers　were　confirmed　by　the　Chapter。　The　inquests　show　that　those　who　farmed　the　estates　had　extensive　rights　as　to　the　use　of　domanial　land；　but　their　dealings　with　the　customary　tenants　were　always　open　to　a　revision　by　the　landlords。　A　confirmation　like　this　Beauchamp　one　transferred　the　plot　of　demesne　land　into　the　class　of　free　tenements；　and　created　a　tenure　defensible　at　law。（43*）　All　such　facts　increase　in　number　and　importance　with　the　increase　of　population：　under　its　pressure　the　area　of　direct　cultivation　for　the　lord　is　gradually　lessened；　and　in　many　surveys　we　find　a　sort　of　belt　formed　around　the　home　farm　by　the　intrusion　of　the　dependent　people　into　the　limits　of　the　demesne。（44*）　The　Domesday　of　St。　Paul's　is　especially　instructive　on　this　point。　Every　estate　shows　one　part　of　the　lord's　land　in　the　possession　of　the　peasants；　sometimes　the　'dominicum　antiquitus　assisum'　is　followed　by　'terrae　de　novo　traditae。'（45*）　　　　　A　second　group　of　free　tenements　consists　of　plots　which　did　not　belong　either　to　the　demesne　or　to　the　regular　holdings　in　the　fields；　but　lay　by　the　side　of　these　holdings　and　were　parcelled　out　in　varying　quantity　and　under　various　conditions。　We　may　begin　by　noticing　the　growth　of　leases。　There　is　no　doubt　that　the　lease…system　was　growing　in　the　thirteenth　century；　and　that　it　is　not　adequately　reflected　in　our　documents。　An　indirect　proof　of　this　is　given　by　the　fact；　that　legal　practice　was　labouring　to　discover　means　of　protection　for　possession　based　on　temporary　agreement。　The　writ　'Quare　ejecit　infra　terminum'　invented　by　William　Raleigh　between　1236　and　1240　protected　the　possession　of　the　'tenant　for　term　of　years'　who　formerly　had　been　regarded　as　having　no　more　than　a　personal　right　enforceable　by　an　action　of　covenant。（46*）　　　　　Manorial　extents　are　sparing　in　their　notices　of　leases　because　their　object　is　to　picture　the　distribution　of　ownership；　and　temporary　agreements　are　beyond　their　range。　But　it　is　not　uncommon　to　find　a　man　holding　a　small　piece　of　land　for　his　life　at　a　substantial　rent。　In　this　case　his　tenure　is　reckoned　freehold；　but　still　he　holds　under　what　we　should　now　call　a　lease　for　life；　the　rent　is　a　substantial　return　for　the　land　that　he　has　hired。　That　English　law　should　regard　these　tenants　under　leases　for　life　as　freeholders；　should；　that　is；　throw　them　into　one　great　class　with　tenants　who　have　heritable　rights；　who　do　but　military　service　or　nominal　service；　who　are　in　fact　if　not　in　name　the　owners　of　the　land；　is　very　remarkable；　hirers　are　mingled　with　owners；　because　according　to　the　great　generalisation　of　English　feudalism　every　owner　is　after　all　but　a　hirer。　Still　we　can　mark　off　for　economic　purposes　a　class　of　tenants　whom　we　may　call　'life…leaseholders；'　and　we　can　see　also　a　smaller　class　of　leaseholders　who　hold　for　terms　of　years。（47*）　They　often　seem　to　owe　their　existence　to　the　action　of　the　manorial　bailiffs　or　the　farmers　to　whom　the　demesne　has　been　let。　We　are　told　that　such　and　such　a　person　has　'entered'　the　tenement　by　the　leave　of　such　and　such　a　farmer　or　bailiff；　or　that　the　tenement　does　not　belong　to　the　occupier　by　hereditary　right；　but　by　the　bailiff's　precept。（48*）　Remarks　of　that　kind　seem　to　mean　that　these　rent…paying　plots；　liberated　from　servile　duties；　were　especially　liable　to　the　interference　of　manorial　officers。　Limits　of　time　are　rarely　mentioned；　and　leases　for　life　seem　to　be　the　general　rule。（49*）　The　tenure　is　only　in　the　course　of　formation；　and　by　no　means　clearly　defined。　One　does　not　even　see；　for　instance；　how　the　question　of　implements　and　stock　was　settled　　whether　they　were　provided　by　the　landlord　or　by　the　tenant。　　　　　We　feel　our　way　with　much　greater　security　in　another　direction。　The　fields　of　the　village　contain　many　a　nook　or　odd　bit　which　cannot　be　squeezed　into　the　virgate　arrangement　and　into　the　system　of　work　and　duties　connected　with　it。　These　'subsecivae；'　as　the　Romans　would　have　said；　were　always　distributed　for　small　rents　in　kind　or　in　money。（50*）　The　manorial　administration　may　also　exclude　from　the　common　arrangement　entire　areas　of　land　which　it　is　thought　advantageous　to　give　out　for　rent。　Those　who　take　it　are　mostly　the　same　villagers　who　possess　the　regular　holdings；　but　their　title　is　different；　in　one　case　it　is　based　on　agreement；　in　the　other　on　custom。（51*）　Plots　of　this　kind　are　called　forlands。（52*）　In　close　connexion　with　them　we　find　the　essarts　or　assarts…land　newly　reclaimed　from　the　waste；　and　therefore　not　mapped　out　according　to　the　original　plan　of　possession　and　service。　The　Surveys　often　mark　the　different　epochs　of　cultivation　　the　old　and　the　new　essarts。（53*）　The　documents　show　also　that　the　spread　of　the　area　under　cultivation　was　effected　in　different　ways；　sometimes　by　a　single　settler　with　help　from　the　lord；（54*）　and　sometimes　by　the　entire　village；　or　at　any　rate　by　a　large　group　of　peasants　who　club　together　for　the　purpose。（55*）　In　the　first　case　there　was　no　reason　for　bringing　the　reclaimed　space　under　the　sway　of　the　compulsory　rotation　of　crops　or　the　other　regulations　of　communal　agriculture。　In　the　second；　the　distribution　of　the　acres　and　strips　among　the　various　tenant