《the origins of contemporary france-1》

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increased by high wooden shoes; and making themselves still taller by

standing on tiptoe to see the battle; stamping with their feet as it

progresses and rubbing each other's flanks with their elbows; their

faces haggard and covered with long matted hair; the upper portion

pallid; and the lower distended; indicative of cruel delight and a

sort of ferocious impatience。  And these folks pay the taille! And now

they want to take away their salt! And they know nothing of those they

despoil; of those whom they think they govern; believing that; by a

few strokes of a cowardly and careless pen; they may starve them with

impunity up to the final catastrophe! Poor Jean…Jacques; I said to

myself; had any one dispatched you; with your system; to copy music

amongst these folks; he would have had some sharp replies to make to

your discourses!〃



Prophetic warning and admirable foresight in one whom an excess of

evil does not blind to the evil of the remedy! Enlightened by his

feudal and rural instincts; the old man at once judges both the

government and the philosophers; the Ancient Regime and the

Revolution。







IV。  THE PEASANT BECOMES LANDOWNER。



How the peasant becomes a proprietor。  … He is no better off。  …

Increase of taxes。  … He is the 〃mule〃 of the Ancient Regime。



Misery begets bitterness in a man; but ownership coupled with

misery renders him still more bitter。  He may have submitted to

indigence but not to spoliation  …   which is the situation of the

peasant in 1789; for; during the eighteenth century; he had become the

possessor of land。  But how could he maintain himself in such

destitution? The fact is almost incredible; but it is nevertheless

true。  We can only explain it by the character of the French peasant;

by his sobriety; his tenacity; his rigor with himself; his

dissimulation; his hereditary passion for property and especially for

that of the soil。  He had lived on privations; and economized sou after

sou。  Every year a few pieces of silver are added to his little store

of crowns buried in the most secret recess of his cellar; Rousseau's

peasant; concealing his wine and bread in a pit; assuredly had a yet

more secret hiding…place; a little money in a woollen stocking or in a

jug escapes; more readily than elsewhere; the search of the clerks。

Dressed in rags; going barefoot; eating nothing but coarse black

bread; but cherishing the little treasure in his breast on which he

builds so many hopes; he watches for the opportunity which never fails

to come。  〃In spite of privileges;〃 writes a gentleman in 1755;'46'

〃the nobles are daily being ruined and reduced; the Third…Estate

making all the fortunes。〃 A number of domains; through forced or

voluntary sales; thus pass into the hands of financiers; of men of the

quill; of merchants; and of the well…to…do bourgeois。  Before

undergoing this total dispossession; however; the seignior; involved

in debt; is evidently resigned to partial alienation of his property。

The peasant who has bribed the steward is at hand with his hoard。  〃It

is poor property; my lord; and it costs you more than you get from

it。〃 This may refer to an isolated patch; one end of a field or

meadow; sometimes a farm whose farmer pays nothing; and generally

worked by a métayer whose wants and indolence make him an annual

expense to his master。  The latter may say to himself that the

alienated parcel is not lost; since; some day or other; through his

right of repurchase; he may take it back; while; in the meantime; he

enjoys a cens; drawbacks; and the lord's dues。  Moreover; there is on

his domain and around him; extensive open spaces which the decline of

cultivation and depopulation have left a desert。  To restore the value

of this he must surrender its proprietorship。  There is no other way by

which to attach man permanently to the soil。  And the government helps

him along in this matter。  Obtaining no revenue from the abandoned

soil; it assents to a provisional withdrawal of its too weighty hand。

By the edict of 1766; a piece of cleared waste land remains free of

the taille for fifteen years; and; thereupon; in twenty…eight

provinces 400;000 arpents are cleared in three years'47'。



This is the mode by which the seigniorial domain gradually crumbles

away and decreases。  Towards the last; in many places; with the

exception of the chateau and the small adjoining farm which brings in

2 or 3000 francs a year; nothing is left to the seignior but his

feudal dues;'48' the rest of the soil belongs to the peasantry。

Forbonnais already remarks; towards 1750; that many of the nobles and

of the ennobled 〃reduced to extreme poverty but with titles to immense

possessions;〃 have sold off portions to small cultivators at low

prices; and often for the amount of the taille。  Towards 1760; one…

quarter of the soil is said to have already passed into the hands of

farmers。  In 1772; in relation to the vingtième; which is levied on the

net revenue of real property; the intendant of Caen; having completed

the statement of his quota; estimates that out of 150;000 〃there are

perhaps 50;000 whose liabilities did not exceed five sous; and perhaps

still as many more not exceeding twenty sous。〃'49' Contemporary

observers authenticate this passion of the peasant for land。  〃The

savings of the lower classes; which elsewhere are invested with

individuals and in the public funds; are wholly destined in France to

the purchase of land。〃 〃Accordingly the number of small rural holdings

is always on the increase。  Necker says that there is an immensity of

them。〃 Arthur Young; in 1789; is astonished at their great number and

〃inclines to think that they form a third of the kingdom。〃 This

already would be our actual estimate; and we still find;

approximately; the actual figures; on estimating the number of

proprietors in comparison with the number of inhabitants。



The small cultivator; however; in becoming a possessor of the soil

assumed its charges。  Simply as day…laborer; and with his arms alone;

he was only partially affected by the taxes; 〃where there is nothing

the king loses his dues。〃 But now; vainly is he poor and declaring

himself still poorer; the fisc has a hold on him and on every portion

of his new possessions。  The collectors; peasants like himself; and

jealous; by virtue of being his neighbors; know how much his property;

exposed to view; brings in; hence they take all they can lay their

hands on。  Vainly has he labored with renewed energy; his hands remain

as empty; and; at the end of the year; he discovers that his field has

produced him nothing。  The more he acquires and produces the more

burdensome do the taxes become。  In 1715; the taille and the poll…tax;

which he alone pays; or nearly alone; amounts to sixty…six millions of

livres; the amount is ninety…three millions in 1759 and one hundred

and ten millions in 1789。'50'  In 1757; the charges amount to

283;156;000 livres; in 1789 to 476;294;000 livres。



Theoretically; through humanity and through good sense; there is;

doubtless; a desire to relieve the peasant; and pity is felt for him。

But; in practice; through necessity and routine; he is treated

according to Cardinal Richelieu's precept; as a beast of burden to

which oats is sparingly rationed out for fear that he may become too

strong and kick; 〃a mule which; accustomed to his load; is spoiled

more by long repose than by work。〃。。。。



________________________________________________________________



Notes:



'1' Labruyère; edition of Destailleurs; II; 97。  Addition to the

fourth ed。  (1689)



'2' Oppression and misery begin about 1672。  … At the end of the

seventeenth century (l698); the reports made up by the intendants for

the Duc de Bourgogne; state that many of the districts and provinces

have lost one…sixth; one…fifth; one…quarter; the third and even the

half of their population。  (See details in the 〃correspondance des

contr?leurs…généraux from 1683 to 1698;〃 published by M。 de

Boislisle)。  According to the reports of intendants; (Vauban; 〃Dime

Royale;〃 ch。  VII。  § 2。); the population of France in 1698 amounted to

19;994;146 inhabitants。  From 1698 to 1715 it decreases。  According to

Forbonnais; there were but 16 or 17 millions under the Regency。  After

this epoch the population no longer diminishes but; for forty years;

it hardly increases。  In 1753 (Voltaire; 〃Dict Phil。;〃 article

Population); there are 3;550;499 hearths; besides 700;000 souls in

Paris; which makes from 16 to 17 millions of inhabitants if we count

four and one…half persons to each fireside; and from 18 to 19 millions

if we count five persons。



'3' Floquet; 〃Histoire du Parlement de Normandie;〃 VII。  402。



'4' Rousseau; 〃Confessions;〃 1st part; ch。  IV。  (1732)。



'5'D'Argenson; 19th and 24th May; July 4; and Aug。  1; 1739



'6' 〃Résumé d'histoire d'Auvergne par un Auvergnat〃 (M。

Tallandier); p。  313。



'7' D'Argenson; 1740; Aug。  7 and 21; September 19 and 24; May 28

and November 7。



'8' D'Argenson; October 4; 1749; May 20; Sept。  12; Oct。  28; Dec。

28; 1750。



'9' D'Argenson; June 21; 1749; May 22; 1750; March 19; 1751;

February 14; April 15; 1752; etc。



'10' Floquet; ibid。。  VII。  410 (April; 1752; an address to the

Parliament of Normandy)



'11' D'Argenson; November 26; 1751: March 15; 1753。



'12' D'Argenson; IV。  124; VI。  165: VII。  194; etc。



'13' Floquet; ibid。  VI。  400…430



'14' 〃Correspondance;〃 by Métra; I。  338; 341。  … Hippeau; 〃Le

Gouvernement de Normandie;〃 IV。  62; 199; 358。



'15' 〃Procès…verbaux de l'assemblée provinciale de Basse Normandie〃

(1787); p。151。



'16' Archives nationales; G; 319。  Condition of the directory of

Issoudun; and H; 1149; 612; 1418。



'17' Ibid。。  The letters of M。 de Crosne; intendant of Rouen

(February 17; 1784); of M。 de Blossac; intendant of Poitiers (May 9;

1784); of M。 de Vi
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