monly freedmen。
At this time we have neither the same esteem for land forces nor the same contempt for those of the sea。 In the former； art has decreased；＇111＇ in the latter； it has augmented：＇112＇ now things are generally esteemed in proportion to the degree of ability requisite to discharge them。
14。 Of the Genius of the Romans with respect to Commerce。 The Romans were never distinguished by a jealousy for trade。 They attacked Carthage as a rival； not as a commercial nation。 They favoured trading cities that were not subject to them。 Thus they increased the power of Marseilles by the cession of a large territory。 They were vastly afraid of barbarians； but had not the least apprehension from a trading people。 Their genius； their glory； their military education； and the very form of their government estranged them from commerce。
In the city； they were employed only about war； elections； factions； and law…suits； in the country； about agriculture； and as for the provinces； a severe and tyrannical government was incompatible with commerce。
But their political constitution was not more opposed to trade than their law of nations。 〃The people；〃 says Pomponius； the civilian；＇113＇ 〃with whom we have neither friendship； nor hospitality nor alliance； are not our enemies； however； if anything belonging to us falls into their hands； they are the proprietors of it； freemen become their slaves； and they are upon the same terms with respect to us。〃
Their civil law was not less oppressive。 The law of Constantine；＇114＇ after having stigmatised as bastards the children of a mean rank who had been married to those of a superior station； confounds women who retail merchandise with slaves； with the mistresses of taverns； with actresses； with the daughters of those who keep public stews； or who had been condemned to fight in the amphitheatre； this had its origin in the ancient institutions of the Romans。
I am not ignorant that men prepossessed with these two ideas （that commerce is of the greatest service to a state； and that the Romans had the best…regulated government in the world） have believed that these people greatly honoured and encouraged commerce； but the truth is； they seldom troubled their heads about it。
15。 Of the Commerce of the Romans with the Barbarians。 The Romans having erected a vast empire in Europe； Asia； and Africa； the weakness of the people and the tyranny of their laws united all the parts of this immense body。 The Roman policy was then to avoid all communication with those nations whom they had not subdued： the fear of carrying to them the art of conquering made them neglect the art of enriching themselves。 They made laws to hinder all commerce with barbarians。 〃Let nobody；〃 said Valens and Gratian；＇115＇ 〃send wine； oil； or other liquors to the barbarians； though it be only for them to taste。〃 〃Let no one carry gold to them；〃 add Gratian； Valentinian； and Theodosius；＇116＇ 〃rather； if they have any； let our subjects deprive them of it by stratagem。〃 The exportation of iron was prohibited on pain of death。
Domitian； a prince of great timidity； ordered the vines in Gaul to be pulled up；＇117＇ from fear； no doubt； lest their wines should draw thither the barbarians。 Probus and Julian； who had no such fears； gave orders for their being planted again。
I am sensible that upon the declension of the Roman empire the barbarians obliged the Romans to establish staple towns； and to trade with them。 But even this is a proof that the minds of the Romans were averse to commerce。＇118＇
16。 Of the Commerce of the Romans with Arabia and the Indies。 The trade to Arabia Felix； and that to the Indies； were the two branches； and almost the only ones； of their foreign commerce。 The Arabians were possessed of immense riches； which they found in their seas and forests； and as they sold much and purchased little； they drew to themselves the gold and silver of the Romans。＇119＇ Augustus；＇120＇ being well apprised of that opulence； resolved they should be either his friends or his enemies。 With this view he sent ？lius Gallus from Egypt into Arabia。 This commander found the people indolent； peaceable； and unskilled in war。 He fought battles； laid sieges to towns； and lost but seven of his men by the sword； but the perfidy of his guides； long marches； the climate； want of provisions； distempers； and ill…conduct； caused the ruin of his army。
He was therefore obliged to be content with trading to Arabia； in the same manner as other nations； that is； with giving them gold and silver in exchange for their commodities。 The Europeans trade with them still in the same manner； the caravans of Aleppo and the royal vessel of Suez carry thither immense sums。＇121＇
Nature had formed the Arabs for commerce； not for war； but when those quiet people came to be near neighbours to the Parthians and the Romans； they acted as auxiliaries to both nations。 ？lius Gallus found them a trading people； Mahomet happened to find them trained to war； he inspired them with enthusiasm； which led them to glory and conquest。
The commerce of the Romans to the Indies was very considerable。 Strabo＇122＇ had been informed in Egypt that they employed in this navigation one hundred and twenty vessels； this commerce was carried on entirely with bullion。 They sent thither annually fifty millions of sesterces。 Pliny＇123＇ says that the merchandise brought thence was sold at Rome at cent。 per cent profit。 He speaks； I believe； too generally； if this trade had been so vastly profitable； everybody would have been willing to engage in it； and then it would have been at an end。
It will admit of a question； whether the trade to Arabia and the Indies was of any advantage to the Romans。 They were obliged to export their bullion thither； though they had not； like us； the resource of America； which supplies what we send away。 I am persuaded that one of the reasons of their increasing the value of their specie by establishing base coin was the scarcity of silver； owing to the continual exportation of it to the Indies： and though the commodities of this country were sold at Rome at the rate of cent。 per cent； this profit of the Romans； being obtained from the Romans themselves； could not enrich the empire。
It may be alleged； on the other hand； that this commerce increased the Roman navigation； and of course their power； that new merchandise augmented their inland trade； gave encouragement to the arts； and employment to the industrious； that the number of subjects multiplied in proportion to the new means of support； that this new commerce was productive of luxury； which I have proved to be as favourable to a monarchical government as fatal to a commonwealth； that this establishment was of the same date as the fall of their republic； that the luxury of Rome had become necessary； and that it was extremely proper that a city which had accumulated all the wealth of the universe should refund it by its luxury。
Strabo says＇124＇ that the Romans carried on a far more extensive commerce with the Indies than the kings of Egypt； but it is very extraordinary that those people who were so little acquainted with commerce should have paid more attention to that of India than the Egyptian kings； whose dominions lay so conveniently for it。 The reason of this must be explained。
After the death of Alexander； the kings of Egypt established a maritime commerce with the Indies； while the kings of Syria； who were possessed of the more eastern provinces； and consequently of the Indies； maintained that commerce of which we have taken notice in the sixth chapter； which was carried on partly by land； and partly by rivers； and had been further facilitated by means of the Macedonian colonies； insomuch that Europe had communication with the Indies both by Egypt and by Syria。 The dismembering of the latter kingdom； whence was formed that of Bactriana； did not prove in any way prejudicial to this commerce。 Marinus the Tyrian； quoted by Ptolemy；＇125＇ mentions the discoveries made in India by means of some Macedonian merchants； who found out new roads； which had been unknown to kings in their military expeditions。 We find in Ptolemy＇126＇ that they went from Peter's tower＇127＇ as far as Sera； and the discovery made by mercantile people of so distant a mart； situated in the north…east part of China； was a kind of prodigy。 Hence； under the kings of Syria and Bactriana； merchandise was conveyed to the west from the southern parts of India； by the river Indus； the Oxus； and the Caspian Sea； while those of the more eastern and northern parts were transported from Sera； Peter's tower； and other staples； as far as the Euphrates。 Those merchants directed their route nearly by the fortieth degree of north latitude； through countries situated to the west of China； more civilised at that time than at present； because they had not as yet been infested by the Tartars。
Now while the Syrian empire was extending its trade to such a distance by land； Egypt did not greatly enlarge its maritime commerce。
The Parthians soon after appeared； and founded their empire； and when Egypt fell under the power of the Romans； this empire was at its height； and had received its whole extension。
The Romans and Parthians were two rival nations； that fought not for dominion but for their very existence。 Between the two empires deserts were formed and armies were always stationed on the frontiers； so that instead of there being any commerce； there was not so much as communication between them。 Ambition； jealousy； religion； national antipathy； and difference of manners completed the separation。 Thus the trade from east to west； which had formerly so many channels； was reduced to one； and Alexandria becoming the only staple； the trade to this city was immensely enlarged。
We shall say but one word of their inland trade。 Its principal branch was the corn brought to Rome for the subsistence of the people； but this was rather a political affair than a point of commerce。 On this account the sailors were favoured with some privileges； because the safety of the empire depended on their vigilance。＇128＇
17。 Of Commerce after the Destruction of the Western Empire。 After the invasion of the Roman empire one effect of the general calamity was the