a history of science-1- 第5部分

ry　even　of　so　comparatively　recent　a　time　as　that　of　Ramses　II。　（fifteenth　century　B。C。）；　and　from　that　period　on　there　was　almost　a　complete　gap　until　the　story　was　taken　up　by　the　Greek　historians　Herodotus　and　Diodorus。　It　is　true　that　the　king…lists　of　the　Alexandrian　historian；　Manetho；　were　all　along　accessible　in　somewhat　garbled　copies。　But　at　best　they　seemed　to　supply　unintelligible　lists　of　names　and　dates　which　no　one　was　disposed　to　take　seriously。　That　they　were；　broadly　speaking；　true　historical　records；　and　most　important　historical　records　at　that；　was　not　recognized　by　modern　scholars　until　fresh　light　had　been　thrown　on　the　subject　from　altogether　new　sources。　These　new　sources　of　knowledge　of　ancient　history　demand　a　moment's　consideration。　They　are　all…important　because　they　have　been　the　means　of　extending　the　historical　period　of　Egyptian　history　（using　the　word　history　in　the　way　just　explained）　by　three　or　four　thousand　years。　As　just　suggested；　that　historical　period　carried　the　scholarship　of　the　early　nineteenth　century　scarcely　beyond　the　fifteenth　century　B。C。；　but　to…day's　vision　extends　with　tolerable　clearness　to　about　the　middle　of　the　fifth　millennium　B。C。　This　change　has　been　brought　about　chiefly　through　study　of　the　Egyptian　hieroglyphics。　These　hieroglyphics　constitute；　as　we　now　know；　a　highly　developed　system　of　writing；　a　system　that　was　practised　for　some　thousands　of　years；　but　which　fell　utterly　into　disuse　in　the　later　Roman　period；　and　the　knowledge　of　which　passed　absolutely　from　the　mind　of　man。　For　about　two　thousand　years　no　one　was　able　to　read；　with　any　degree　of　explicitness；　a　single　character　of　this　strange　script；　and　the　idea　became　prevalent　that　it　did　not　constitute　a　real　system　of　writing；　but　only　a　more　or　less　barbaric　system　of　religious　symbolism。　The　falsity　of　this　view　was　shown　early　in　the　nineteenth　century　when　Dr。　Thomas　Young　was　led；　through　study　of　the　famous　trilingual　inscription　of　the　Rosetta　stone；　to　make　the　first　successful　attempt　at　clearing　up　the　mysteries　of　the　hieroglyphics。　This　is　not　the　place　to　tell　the　story　of　his　fascinating　discoveries　and　those　of　his　successors。　That　story　belongs　to　nineteenth…century　science；　not　to　the　science　of　the　Egyptians。　Suffice　it　here　that　Young　gained　the　first　clew　to　a　few　of　the　phonetic　values　of　the　Egyptian　symbols；　and　that　the　work　of　discovery　was　carried　on　and　vastly　extended　by　the　Frenchman　Champollion；　a　little　later；　with　the　result　that　the　firm　foundations　of　the　modern　science　of　Egyptology　were　laid。　Subsequently　such　students　as　Rosellini　the　Italian；　Lepsius　the　German；　and　Wilkinson　the　Englishman；　entered　the　field；　which　in　due　course　was　cultivated　by　De　Rouge　in　France　and　Birch　in　England；　and　by　such　distinguished　latter…day　workers　as　Chabas；　Mariette；　Maspero；　Amelineau；　and　De　Morgan　among　the　Frenchmen；　Professor　Petrie　and　Dr。　Budge　in　England；　and　Brugsch　Pasha　and　Professor　Erman　in　Germany；　not　to　mention　a　large　coterie　of　somewhat　less　familiar　names。　These　men　working；　some　of　them　in　the　field　of　practical　exploration；　some　as　students　of　the　Egyptian　language　and　writing；　have　restored　to　us　a　tolerably　precise　knowledge　of　the　history　of　Egypt　from　the　time　of　the　first　historical　king；　Mena；　whose　date　is　placed　at　about　the　middle　of　the　fifth　century　B。C。　We　know　not　merely　the　names　of　most　of　the　subsequent　rulers；　but　some　thing　of　the　deeds　of　many　of　them；　and；　what　is　vastly　more　important；　we　know；　thanks　to　the　modern　interpretation　of　the　old　literature；　many　things　concerning　the　life　of　the　people；　and　in　particular　concerning　their　highest　culture；　their　methods　of　thought；　and　their　scientific　attainments；　which　might　well　have　been　supposed　to　be　past　finding　out。　Nor　has　modern　investigation　halted　with　the　time　of　the　first　kings；　the　recent　explorations　of　such　archaeologists　as　Amelineau；　De　Morgan；　and　Petrie　have　brought　to　light　numerous　remains　of　what　is　now　spoken　of　as　the　predynastic　perioda　period　when　the　inhabitants　of　the　Nile　Valley　used　implements　of　chipped　stone；　when　their　pottery　was　made　without　the　use　of　the　potter's　wheel；　and　when　they　buried　their　dead　in　curiously　cramped　attitudes　without　attempt　at　mummification。　These　aboriginal　inhabitants　of　Egypt　cannot　perhaps　with　strict　propriety　be　spoken　of　as　living　within　the　historical　period；　since　we　cannot　date　their　relics　with　any　accuracy。　But　they　give　us　glimpses　of　the　early　stages　of　civilization　upon　which　the　Egyptians　of　the　dynastic　period　were　to　advance。　It　is　held　that　the　nascent　civilization　of　these　Egyptians　of　the　Neolithic；　or　late　Stone　Age；　was　overthrown　by　the　invading　hosts　of　a　more　highly　civilized　race　which　probably　came　from　the　East；　and　which　may　have　been　of　a　Semitic　stock。　The　presumption　is　that　this　invading　people　brought　with　it　a　knowledge　of　the　arts　of　war　and　peace；　developed　or　adopted　in　its　old　home。　The　introduction　of　these　arts　served　to　bridge　somewhat　suddenly；　so　far　as　Egypt　is　concerned；　that　gap　between　the　prehistoric　and　the　historic　stage　of　culture　to　which　we　have　all　along　referred。　The　essential　structure　of　that　bridge；　let　it　now　be　clearly　understood；　consisted　of　a　single　element。　That　element　is　the　capacity　to　make　written　records：　a　knowledge　of　the　art　of　writing。　Clearly　understood；　it　is　this　element　of　knowledge　that　forms　the　line　bounding　the　historical　period。　Numberless　mementos　are　in　existence　that　tell　of　the　intellectual　activities　of　prehistoric　man；　such　mementos　as　flint　implements；　pieces　of　pottery；　and　fragments　of　bone；　inscribed　with　pictures　that　may　fairly　be　spoken　of　as　works　of　art；　but　so　long　as　no　written　word　accompanies　these　records；　so　long　as　no　name　of　king　or　scribe　comes　down　to　us；　we　feel　that　these　records　belong　to　the　domain　of　archaeology　rather　than　to　that　of　history。　Yet　it　must　be　understood　all　along　that　these　two　domains　shade　one　into　the　other　and；　it　has　already　been　urged；　that　the　distinction　between　them　is　one　that　pertains　rather　to　modern　scholarship　than　to　the　development　of　civilization　itself。　Bearing　this　distinction　still　in　mind；　and　recalling　that　the　historical　period；　which　is　to　be　the　field　of　our　observation　throughout　the　rest　of　our　studies；　extends　for　Egypt　well　back　into　the　fifth　millennium　B。C。；　let　us　briefly　review　the　practical　phases　of　that　civilization　to　which　the　Egyptian　had　attained　before　the　beginning　of　the　dynastic　period。　Since　theoretical　science　is　everywhere　linked　with　the　mechanical　arts；　this　survey　will　give　us　a　clear　comprehension　of　the　field　that　lies　open　for　the　progress　of　science　in　the　long　stages　of　historical　time　upon　which　we　are　just　entering。　We　may　pass　over　such　rudimentary　advances　in　the　direction　of　civilization　as　are　implied　in　the　use　of　articulate　language；　the　application　of　fire　to　the　uses　of　man；　and　the　systematic　making　of　dwellings　of　one　sort　or　another；　since　all　of　these　are　stages　of　progress　that　were　reached　very　early　in　the　prehistoric　period。　What　more　directly　concerns　us　is　to　note　that　a　really　high　stage　of　mechanical　development　had　been　reached　before　the　dawnings　of　Egyptian　history　proper。　All　manner　of　household　utensils　were　employed；　the　potter's　wheel　aided　in　the　construction　of　a　great　variety　of　earthen　vessels；　weaving　had　become　a　fine　art；　and　weapons　of　bronze；　including　axes；　spears；　knives；　and　arrow…heads；　were　in　constant　use。　Animals　had　long　been　domesticated；　in　particular　the　dog；　the　cat；　and　the　ox；　the　horse　was　introduced　later　from　the　East。　The　practical　arts　of　agriculture　were　practised　almost　as　they　are　at　the　present　day　in　Egypt；　there　being；　of　course；　the　same　dependence　then　as　now　upon　the　inundations　of　the　Nile。　As　to　government；　the　Egyptian　of　the　first　dynasty　regarded　his　king　as　a　demi…god　to　be　actually　deified　after　his　death；　and　this　point　of　view　was　not　changed　throughout　the　stages　of　later　Egyptian　history。　In　point　of　art；　marvellous　advances　upon　the　skill　of　the　prehistoric　man　had　been　made；　probably　in　part　under　Asiatic　influences；　and　that　unique　style　of　stilted　yet　expressive　drawing　had　come　into　vogue；　which　was　to　be　remembered　in　after　times　as　typically　Egyptian。　More　important　than　all　else；　our　Egyptian　of　the　earliest　historical　period　was　in　possession　of　the　art　of　writing。　He　had　begun　to　make　those　specific　records　which　were　impossible　to　the　man　of　the　Stone　Age；　and　thus　he　had　entered　fully　upon　the　way　of　historical　progress　which；　as　already　pointed　out；　has　its　very　foundation　in　written　records。　From　now　on　the　deeds　of　individual　kings　could　find　specific　record。　It　began　to　be　possible　to　fix　the　chronology　of　remote　events　with　some　accuracy；　and　with　this　same　fixing　of　chronologies　came　the　advent　of　true　history。　The　period　which　precedes　what　is　usually　spoken　of　as　the　first　dynasty　in　Egypt　is　one　into　which　the　present…day　searcher　is　still　able　to　see　but　darkly。　The　evidence　seems　to　suggest　than　an　invasion　of　relatively　cultured　people　from　the　East　overthrew；　and　in　time　supplanted；　the　Neolithic　civilization　of　the　Nile　Valley。　It　is　impossible　to　date　this　invasion　accurately；　but　it　cannot　well　have　been　later　than　the　year　5000　B。C。；　and　it　may　have　been　a　great　many　centuries　earlier　than　this。　Be　the　exact　dates　what　they　may；　we　find　the　Egyptian　of　the　fifth　millennium　B。C。　in　full　possession　of　a　highly　organized　civilization。　All　subsequent　ages　have　marvelled　at　the　pyramids；　some　of　which　date　from　about　the　year　4000　B。C。；　though　we　may　note　in　passing　that　these　dates　must　not　be　taken　too　literally。　The　chronology　of　ancient　Egypt　cannot　as　yet　be　fixed　with　exact　accuracy；　but　the　disagreements　between　the　various　students　of　the　subject　need　give　us　little　concern。　For　our　present　purpose　it　does　not　in　the　least　matter　whether　the　pyramids　were　built　three　thousand　or　four　thousand　years　before　the　beginning　of　our　era。　It　suffices　that　they　date　back　to　a　period　long　antecedent　to　the　beginnings　of　civilization　in　Western　Europe。　They　prove　that　the　Egyptian　of　that　early　day　had　attained　a　knowledge　of　practical　mechanics　which；　even　from　the　twen