agreed that the proportion of good and evil in life may be very
sensibly affected by human action。 I never heard anybody doubt that
the evil may be thus increased； or diminished； and it would seem to
follow that good must be similarly susceptible of addition or
subtraction。 Finally； to my knowledge； nobody professes to doubt that；
so far forth as we possess a power of bettering things； it is our
paramount duty to use it and to train all our intellect and energy to
this supreme service of our kind。
Hence the pressing interest of the question； to what extent modern
progress in natural knowledge； and； more especially； the general
outcome of that progress in the doctrine of evolution； is competent to
help us in the great work of helping one another？
The propounders of what are called the 〃ethics of evolution；〃 when the
〃evolution of ethics〃 would usually better express the object of their
speculations； adduce a number of more or less interesting facts and
more or less sound arguments in favour of the origin of the moral
sentiments； in the same way as other natural phenomena； by a process
of evolution。 I have little doubt； for my own part； that they are on
the right track； but as the immoral sentiments have no less been
evolved； there is； so far； as much natural sanction for the ＇80＇ one
as the other。 The thief and the murderer follow nature just as much as
the philanthropist。 Cosmic evolution may teach us how the good and the
evil tendencies of man may have come about； but； in itself； it is
incompetent to furnish any better reason why what we call good is
preferable to what we call evil than we had before。 Some day； I doubt
not； we shall arrive at an understanding of the evolution of the
Aesthetic faculty； but all the understanding in the world will neither
increase nor diminish the force of the intuition that this is
beautiful and that is ugly。
There is another fallacy which appears to me to pervade the so…called
〃ethics of evolution。〃 It is the notion that because； on the whole；
animals and plants have advanced in perfection of organization by
means of the struggle for existence and the consequent 〃survival of
the fittest；〃 therefore men in society； men as ethical beings； must
look to the same process to help them towards perfection。 I suspect
that this fallacy has arisen out of the unfortunate ambiguity of the
phrase 〃survival of the fittest。〃 〃Fittest〃 has a connotation of
〃best；〃 and about 〃best〃 there hangs a moral flavour。 In cosmic
nature； however； what is 〃fittest〃 depends upon the conditions。 Long
since ＇Note 19＇； I ventured to point out that if our hemisphere were
to cool again； the survival of the fittest might bring about； in the
vegetable kingdom； a population of more and more stunted and humbler
＇81＇ and humbler organisms； until the 〃fittest〃 that survived might be
nothing but lichens； diatoms； and such microscopic organisms as those
which give red snow its colour； while； if it became hotter； the
pleasant valleys of the Thames and Isis might； be uninhabitable by any
animated beings save those that flourish in a tropical jungle。 They；
as the fittest； the best adapted to the changed conditions； would
survive。
Men in society are undoubtedly subject to the cosmic process。 As among
other animals； multiplication goes on without cessation； and involves
severe competition for the means of support。 The struggle for
existence tends to eliminate those less fitted to adapt themselves to
the circumstances of their existence。 The strongest； the most
self…assertive； tend to tread down the weaker。 But the influence of
the cosmic process on the evolution of society is the greater the more
rudimentary its civilization。 Social progress means a checking of the
cosmic； process at every step and the substitution for it of another；
which may be called the ethical process； the end of which is not the
survival of those who may happen to be the fittest； in respect of the
whole of the conditions which obtain； but of those who are ethically
the best。＇Note 20＇
As I have already urged； the practice of that which is ethically
bestwhat we call goodness or virtueinvolves a course of conduct
which； in all ＇82＇ respects； is opposed to that which leads to success
in the cosmic struggle for existence。 In place of ruthless
self…assertion it demands self…restraint； in place of thrusting aside；
or treading down； all competitors； it requires that the individual
shall not merely respect； but shall help his fellows； its influence is
directed； not so much to the survival of the fittest； as to the
fitting of as many as possible to survive。 It repudiates the
gladiatorial theory of existence。 It demands that each man who enters
into the enjoyment of the advantages of a polity shall be mindful of
his debt to those who have laboriously constructed it； and shall take
heed that no act of his weakens the fabric in which he has been
permitted to live。 Laws and moral precepts are directed to the end of
curbing the cosmic process and reminding the individual of his duty to
the community； to the protection and influence of which he owes； if
not existence itself； at least the life of something better than a
brutal savage。
It is from neglect of these plain considerations that the fanatical
individualism ＇Note 21＇ of our time attempts to apply the analogy of
cosmic nature to society。 Once more we have a misapplication of the
stoical injunction to follow nature； the duties of the individual to
the state are forgotten； and his tendencies to self…assertion are
dignified by the name of rights。 It is seriously debated whether the
members of a community are justified in using ＇83＇ their combined
strength to constrain one of their number to contribute his share to
the maintenance of it； or even to prevent him from doing his best to
destroy it。 The struggle for existence which has done such admirable
work in cosmic nature； must； it appears； be equally beneficent in the
ethical sphere。 Yet if that which I have insisted upon is true； if the
cosmic process has no sort of relation to moral ends； if the imitation
of it by man is inconsistent with the first principles of ethics； what
becomes of this surprising theory？
Let us understand； once for all； that the ethical progress of society
depends； not on imitating the cosmic process； still less in running
away from it； but in combating it。 It may seem an audacious proposal
thus to pit the microcosm against the macrocosm and to set man to
subdue nature to his higher ends； but I venture to think that the
great intellectual difference between the ancient times with which we
have been occupied and our day； lies in the solid foundation we have
acquired for the hope that such an enterprise may meet with a certain
measure of success。
The history of civilization details the steps by which men have
succeeded in building up an artificial world within the cosmos。
Fragile reed as he may be； man； as Pascal says； is a thinking reed：
＇Note 22＇ there lies within him a fund of energy operating
intelligently and so far akin to that which pervades the universe；
that it is competent ＇84＇ to influence and modify the cosmic process。
In virtue of his intelligence； the dwarf bends the Titan to his will。
In every family； in every polity that has been established； the cosmic
process in man has been restrained and otherwise modified by law and
custom； in surrounding nature； it has been similarly influenced by the
art of the shepherd； the agriculturist； the artisan。 As civilization
has advanced； so has the extent of this interference increased； until
the organized and highly developed sciences and arts of the present
day have endowed man with a command over the course of non…human
nature greater than that once attributed to the magicians。 The most
impressive； I might say startling； of these changes have been brought
about in the course of the last two centuries； while a right
comprehension of the process of life and of the means of influencing
its manifestations is only just dawning upon us。 We do not yet see
our way beyond generalities； and we are befogged by the obtrusion of
false analogies and crude anticipations。 But Astronomy； Physics；
Chemistry； have all had to pass through similar phases； before they
reached the stage at which their influence became an important factor
in human affairs。 Physiology； Psychology； Ethics； Political Science；
must submit to the same ordeal。 Yet it seems to me irrational to doubt
that； at no distant period； they will work as great a revolution in
the sphere of practice。
＇85＇ The theory of evolution encourages no millennial anticipations。
If； for millions of years； our globe has taken the upward road； yet；
some time； the summit will be reached and the downward route will be
commenced。 The most daring imagination will hardly venture upon the
suggestion that the power and the intelligence of man can ever arrest
the procession of the great year。
Moreover； the cosmic nature born with us and； to a large extent；
necessary for our maintenance； is the outcome of millions of years of
severe training； and it would be folly to imagine that a few centuries
will suffice to subdue its masterfulness to purely ethical ends。
Ethical nature may count upon having to reckon with a tenacious and
powerful enemy as long as the world lasts。 But； on the other hand； I
see no limit to the extent to which intelligence and will； guided by
sound principles of investigation； and organized in common effort； may
modify the conditions of existence； for a period longer than that now
covered by history。 And much may be done to change the nature of man
himself。 ＇Note 23＇ The intelligence which has converted the brother of
the wolf into the faithful guardian of the flock ought to be able to
do something towards curbing the instincts of savagery in civilized
men。
But if we may permit ourselves at larger hope of abatement of the
essential evil of the world than was possible to those who； in the
infancy of ＇86＇ exact knowledge； faced the problem of existence more
than a score of centuries ago； I deem it an essential condition of the
realization of that hope that we should cast aside the notion that the
escape from