submission of Russia to a foreign prince。 In those unhappy days
when so many provinces were occupied by Polish and Swedish
soldiers； and the boyars were half gained over to the interests
of Vladislas； the son of the Polish king； when Novgorod made a
separate peace with the Swedes； and was on the point of
recognising the doubtful rights of a Swedish pretender； the
political unity of Russia found champions only in the ranks of
the lower orders represented at the Sobor。
The history of these old Russian Parliaments presents
certainly a less dramatic interest than the history of English
Parliaments or French States…General。 Cases of conflict between
the different orders convened to the National Councils occur very
seldom。 We read of no vehement invectives； like those which the
deputies of the nobility thundered forth against the third estate
at the etats generaux of 1613。 We hear also of no compacts or
associations between estates； like those； which more than once
allowed the English barons and burgesses to achieve a manifest
victory over the king。 The language employed by Russian
representatives in speaking to their sovereign is moderate； and
sometimes even servile。 They like to call themselves the 〃slaves
of his Majesty；〃 but； in so doing； they never forget their
obligations towards their electors； to open the eyes of the
Government to 〃all the wrongs； depredations； and oppressions；
committed by its officers。〃 They are subjects； conscious of their
duty towards sovereign and country； ready to sacrifice their life
and estates for the defence of its essential interest； they are
not slaves； afraid of opening their mouths or of offending the
ear of the monarch by a truthful description of their wrongs。
Their loyalty towards the Czar finds a parallel in that which
they entertain towards the Greek Church。 They are orthodox； and；
therefore； ready to shed。 their blood in the defence of their
creed； simply represented； as it sometimes is； by the images of
the saints； but they have no inclination towards clericalism； and
no objection to imposing taxes on the clergy and even to
secularising their estates for the good of the country and the
advantage of the military class。 Illiterate as were their
members； it is not surprising that the Sobors took no measure to
increase the number of schools and educational establishments。
They are probably the sole representative Assemblies which never
uttered a word about science or scholarship。 It was chiefly due
to their ignorance that their opinions about commercial
intercourse with foreign countries were so little rational。 it is
not surprising if the whole policy of trade reduced itself；
according to their understanding； to the elimination of the
competition of the Eastern and Western merchants。
With such helpers as these no general reform； like that of
Peter the Great； was likely to be accomplished。 It may be easily
understood； therefore； why this greatest of Russian
revolutionists never tried to associate the Sobors in his work。
The reforms at which he aimed： the subversion of the civil and
military organisation； the introduction of a totally new
provincial administration； copied from Swedish originals； of a
standing army； like those of the French and German autocrats； the
opening of Russian markets to the competition of foreign
merchants； the establishment of technical schools and such like
innovations； were not to be carried out by 〃the decision of the
whole land；〃 to employ the consecrated term for Russian legal
enactments during the period directly preceding that of Peter the
Great。 〃Enlightened despostism〃 found in Russia the same
difficulty in going hand in hand with the old Assemblies of
estates； as it did in Austria at the time of Joseph the Second。
Fully to understand the reasons which prevented the Wither
development of the Russian national councils； we must also bear
in mind that the period in which Russia； by the genius of Peter；
was thrown into active intercourse with European powers； was far
from being the golden age of representative Government。 When the
Sobors began to take root in the Russian soil； Parliaments and
States…General were rapidly advancing to a state of complete
annihilation or temporary suppression。 What importance can we
attach to the deliberations of the English Parliaments under the
Tudors； or even under the Stuarts； up to the year 1640？ What
National Assembly can we mention in France after the year 1613？
The fall of representative institutions； which we notice both in
England and in France； was a common fact of European history。 The
German Reichstag and the Landstande of the different States which
composed the Holy Roman Empire had fallen into the same state of
political insignificance during the period following the treaty
of Munster。 The same fate had overtaken the Cortes of Castille
and Aragon； and the provincial estates of Hungary and Bohemia。
All over Europe monarchical power was steadily increasing； and
autocracy becoming the ruling principle of the day。 Was it
likely； therefore； that Peter； who declared that he would
willingly have given to Richelieu a good moiety of his dominions
on condition of being taught by him how to rule the remainder；
was it likely； I ask； that that same Peter should bring home from
his long voyages in the West any particular respect for
representative institutions？ It is； therefore； easily understood
why； from the beginning of the eighteenth century； the Sobors；
without being abolished； should have ceased to be convened。
It was not until there was a general revival of
representative institutions throughout Europe that Russian
statesmen were found once more occupied with the question of the
Sobors。
Alexander I； to judge by the liberality with which he endowed
the Poles with a representative assembly； was； at least in the
first part of his reign； not directly opposed to the idea of
re…calling to life those venerable institutions of the past。
Among the papers of his most intimate Councillor； Speransky；
there has been found the project of a constitution； according to
which the Council of State； this natural heir of the old Russian
Douma； was to be strengthened by the introduction of
representatives and notables； chosen from the different Estates
of the Empire。 In much more recent days a similar project was
presented by Loris Melikoff to Alexander II； and an imperial
ukase summoning this new Assembly of notables was already signed；
when the premature death of the Emperor put an end to the
expectations of the Liberal party。 In the first weeks of his
reign Alexander III himself was not opposed to the idea of
reviving the old national institution of the Sobors； and his
first two ministers for Home Affairs； Loris Melikoff and
Ignatiev； were both in favour of such a reform。 It was only from
the day when Count Dimitri Tolstoi took upon his shoulders the
burthen of the home politics of Russia； that all thoughts were
given up of convoking a representative assembly。 The Government
then entered on the fatal task of the subversion of all recent
reforms。 Nobody can tell how long will be the duration of the
period of reaction upon which we have entered； but on the other
hand nobody can doubt that the convocation of a national council
is the most natural way of satisfying the wishes of the
constantly increasing party of malcontents a body of men which
has been nick…named by its opponents 〃the Intelligent Party〃
（intelligentia） a nick…name； which certainly cannot offend
those on whom it is conferred。
The convocation of a national representative assembly would
no doubt close the era of misunderstanding between the Russian
people and the imperial power of the Czars； it would unite the
Russian past with the present and future； and would once more
open a large field to the co…operation of society for the redress
of old wrongs and the establishment of personal liberty and
social justice。
NOTES：
1。 Compare Kluchevsky's recent article； 〃On the Representative
System of the Sobors；〃 in Russian Thought； a monthly periodical；
published at Moscow； January； 1890。
2。 The were much the same as the Carlovingian benefices。
3。 A desiatin is approximately three English acres。
4。 Nordenflicht； 〃Die Schwedische Staatsverfassung in ihrer
geschichlichen Entwickelung；〃 p。 23。
5。 Bavelier； 〃Essai Historique sur le Droit d'Election et sur les
Anciennes Assemblees Representatives en France；〃 p。 92。
6。 〃Historisch…Geographische Beschreibung der Nordl und Oestl。
Theile von Europa und Asien；〃 p。 202。
7。 p。 284。
8。 〃Vor dem Cronungs Act hat Michael folgende Puncte und
conditiones acceptirt und unterschrieben； nahmlich： （1） Die
Religion zu erhalten und zu schutzen： （2） alles was semem Vater
widerfahren zu vergessen und zu vergeben； und keine particulare
Feindschaft； sie moge Nahmen haben wie sie wowlle zu gedenken；
（3） keine neue Gesetze zu machen； oder alte zu undern； hohe und
wichtige Sachen nach dem Gesetze und nicht allein vor sich
selbst； sondern durch ordentlichen Procez urtheilen zu lassen；
（4） weder Krieg noch Frieden allein und vor sich selbst mit dem
Nachbar vorzunehmen und； （5） seine Guter zur Bezeugung der
Gerechtigkeit und Vermeidung aller Procesz mit particularen
Leuten； entweder an seine Familie abzutreten oder solche denen
Kron…Guthern einzuverleiben。〃 （p。 209）。