forty centuries of ink- 第52部分

two　methods　appear　each　to　have　had　its　particular

advantages；　according　to　the　way　in　which；　and　the

time　at　which；　the　manuscript　was　filled　up。　Some

of　the　records　of　the　former　of　these　two　kinds　contain

so　many　skins　of　parchment　that　they　form　a

huge　roll　equal　in　size　to　a　large　bass　drum；　and

requiring　the　strength　of　two　men　to　lift　them。　Some

of　these　on　the　continuous　plan　are　also　said　to　be　of

immense　size；　one；　of　modern　date；　is　nine　hundred

feet　in　length　and　employs　a　man　three　hours　to　unroll

it。　The　invaluable　old　record；　known　by　the

name　of　〃Doomsday　Book；〃　is　shaped　like　a　book；

and　is　much　more　convenient　to　open　than　most　of

the　others。　Various　other　legal　documents；　to　an　immense

amount；　are　〃filed；〃　or　fastened　together　by

a　string　passing　through　them。



It　seems　a　very　strange　contradiction；　but　it　is　positively

asserted　as　a　fact；　that　the　parchment　employed

for　these　records　was　of　very　fine　quality　down　to　the

time　of　Elizabeth；　but　that　it　gradually　deteriorated

afterwards；　insomuch　that　the　latest　are　the　worst。

Some　of　these　records　and　rolls　are　written　in　Latin；

some　in　Norman　French；　and　some　in　English。



The　modes　of　depositing　and　carrying　the　ancient

records　were　curious；　and　there　seems　to　have　been　no

very　definite　arrangement　in　this　respect。　Great　numbers

were　kept　in　pouches　or　bags　made　of　leather；

canvas；　cordovan；　or　buckram；　they　were　tied　like

modern　reticules。　When　such　pouches　have　escaped

damp　they　have　preserved　the　parchment　records　for

centuries　perfectly　clean　and　uninjured。　Another　kind

of　receptacle　for　records　was　a　small　turned　box；　called

a　〃skippet；〃　and　another　was　the　〃hanaper；〃　or　hamper；

a　basket　made　of　twigs　or　wicker…work。　Chests；

coffers；　and　cases　of　various　shapes　and　sizes　formed

other　receptacles　for　the　records。　The　mode　of　finding

the　particular　document　required　was　not　by　a

system　of　paging　and　an　index；　as　in　a　modern　book；

because　the　arrangement　of　the　written　sheets　did　not

admit　of　this；　but　there　were　letters；　signs；　and　inscriptions；

or　labels　for　this　purpose；　they　constitute

an　odd　assemblage；　comprising　ships；　scales；　balances；

castles；　plants；　animals；　etc。；　in　most　instances　the

signs　or　symbols　bear　some　analogy；　or　supposed　analogy；

with　the　subject　of　the　record；　such　as　an　oak

on　a　record　relating　to　the　forest　laws；　a　head　in　a　cowl

on　one　relating　to　a　monastery；　scales　on　one　relating

to　coining；　etc。



At　a　time　when　books　were　prepared　by　hand　instead

of　by　printing；　and　when　each　copy　became

very　valuable；　books　were　treated　with　a　degree　of

respect　which　can　be　hardly　understood　at　the　present

day。　The　clergy　and　the　monks　were　almost　exclusively

the　readers　of　those　days；　and　they　held　the

other　classes　of　society　in　such　contempt；　in　all　that

regarded　literature　and　learning；　that　Bishop　de　Burg；

who　wrote　about　five　centuries　ago；　expresses　an　opinion

that　〃Laymen；　to　whom　it　matters　not　whether

they　look　at　a　book　turned　wrong　side　upwards　or

spread　before　them　in　natural　order；　are　altogether

unworthy　of　any　communion　with　books。〃



It　is　stated　by　Mr。　Knight；　in　his　〃Life　of　Caxton：〃



〃We　have　abundant　evidence；　whatever　be　the

scarcity　of　books　as　compared　with　the　growth　of

scholarship；　that　the　ecclesiastics　laboured　most

diligently　to　multiply　books　for　their　own　establishments。

In　every　great　abbey　there　was　a　room

called　the　Scriptorium；　where　boys　and　novices　were

constantly　employed　in　multiplying　the　service…

books　of　the　choir；　and　the　less　valuable　books

for　the　library；　whilst　the　monks　themselves　laboured

in　their　cells　upon　bibles　and　missals。　Equal

pains　were　taken　in　providing　books　for　those　who

received　a　liberal　education　in　collegiate　establishments。〃



Warton　says：



〃At　the　foundation　of　Winchester　College；　one

or　more　transcribers　were　hired　and　employed　by

the　founder　to　make　books　for　the　library。　They

transcribed　and　took　their　food　within　the　college；

as　appears　by　computation　of　expenses　on　their

account　now　remaining。　But　there　are　many　indications

that　even　kings　and　nobles　had　not　the　advantage

of　scholars　by　profession；　and；　possessing

few　books　of　their　own；　had　sometimes　to　borrow

of　their　more　favoured　subjects。〃



We　learn　from　another　source　that　the　great　not

only　procured　books　by　purchase；　but　employed　transcribers

to　make　them　for　their　libraries。　The　manuscript

expense　account　of　Sir　John　Howard；　afterwards

Duke　of　Norfolk；　shows　in　1467；　Thomas　Lympnor；

that　is　Thomas　the　Limner　of　Bury；　was　paid　the　sum

of　fifty　shillings　and　two　pence　for　a　book　which　he

had　transcribed　and　ornamented；　including　the　vellum

and　binding。　The　limner's　bill　is　made　up　of　a　number

of　items；　〃for　whole　vignettes；　and　half…vignettes；

and　capital　letters；　and　flourishing　and　plain　writing。〃



These　transcribers　and　limners　worked　principally

upon　parchment　and　vellum；　for　the　use　of　paper　was

by　no　means　extensive　until　the　invention　of　the　art

of　printing。　Some　of　the　old　manuscripts　contain

drawings　representing　a　copier　or　transcriber　at　work；

where　the　monk　is　represented　as　provided　with　a

singular　and　tolerably　complete　set　of　apparatus　to

aid　him　in　his　work。　The　desk　for　containing　the

sheet　or　skin　on　which　he　is　writing；　the　clasp　to　keep

this　sheet　flat；　the　inkstand；　the　pen；　and　the　knife；

the　manuscript　from　which　the　copy　is　being　made；

the　desk　for　containing　that　manuscript；　and　the

weight　for　keeping　it　in　its　place；all　are　shown；　with

a　clearness　which；　despite　of　bad　perspective；　renders

them　quite　intelligible。



Of　the　two　substances；　parchment　and　vellum；　before

the　invention　of　paper；　another　word　or　two　may　be

said。　Parchment　is　made　from　the　skin　of　sheep　or

lambs；　vellum；　from　that　of　very　young　calves　（sometimes

unborn　ones）；　but　the　process　of　preparing　is

pretty　much　the　same　in　both　cases。　When　the　hair

or　wool　has　been　removed；　the　skin　is　steeped　in　lime

water；　and　then　stretched　on　a　square　frame　in　a　light

manner。　While　so　stretched；　it　is　scraped　on　the

flesh　side　with　a　blunt　iron；　wetted　with　a　moist　rag；

covered　with　pounded　chalk；　and　rubbed　well　with

pumice　stone。　After　a　time；　these　operations　are

repeated；　but　without　the　use　of　chalk；　the　skin　is

then　turned；　and　scraped　on　the　hair　side　once　only；

the　flesh　side　is　then　scraped　once　more；　and　again

rubbed　over　with　chalk；　which　is　brushed　off　with　a

piece　of　lambskin　retaining　the　wool。　All　this　is

done　by　the　skinner；　who　allows　the　skin　to　dry　on　a

frame；　and　then　cuts　it　out　and　sends　it　to　the　parchment

maker；　who　repeats　the　operation　with　a　sharper

tool；　using　a　sack　stuffed　with　flocks　（wool　or　hair）　to

lay　the　skin　upon；　instead　of　stretching　it　on　a　frame。



Respecting　the　quality；　value；　and　preparation　of

parchment　in　past　ages；　it　is　stated　in　the　〃Penny

Cyclopaedia〃　that　parchment　from　the　seventh　to　the

tenth　century　was　〃white　and　good；　and　at　the

earliest　of　these　periods　it　appears　to　have　nearly

superseded　papyrus；　which　was　brittle　and　more

perishable。　A　very　few　books　of　the　seventh　century

have　leaves　of　parchment　and　papyrus　mixed；　that

the　former　costly　material　might　strengthen　and　support

the　friable　paper。　About　the　eleventh　century

it　grew　worse；　and　a　dirty　colored　parchment　is

evidence　of　a　want　of　antiquity。　This　may　possibly

arise　from　the　circumstances　that　writers　of　this　time

prepared　their　own　parchment；　and　they　were　probably

not　so　skilled　as　manufacturers。　A　curious

passage　from　a　sermon　of　Hildebert；　Archbishop　of

Tours；　who　was　born　in　1054；　is　a　voucher　for　this

fact。　The　sermon　is　on　the　〃Book　of　Life；〃　which

he　recommends　his　hearers　to　obtain：



'Do　you　know　what　a　writer　does？　He　first

cleanses　his　parchment　from　the　grease；　and　takes

off　the　principal　part　of　the　dirt；　then　he　entirely

rubs　off　the　hair　and　fibres　with　pumice　stone；　if

he　did　not　do　so；　the　letters　written　upon　it　would

not　be　good；　nor　would　they　last　long。　He　then

rules　lines　that　the　writing　may　be　straight。　All

these　things　you　ought　to　do；　if　you　wish　to　possess

the　book　which　I　have　been　displaying　to　you。'



At　this　time　parchment　was　a　very　costly　material。

We　find　it　mentioned　that　Gui；　Count　of　Nevers；

having　sent　a　valuable　present　of　plate　to　the　Chartreux

of　Paris；　the　unostentatious　monks　returned　it

with　a　request　that　he　would　send　them　parchment

instead。〃







CHAPTER　XXX。



MODERN　INK　BACKGROUNDS　（TRUE　PAPER）。



WHEN　IT　WAS　THAT　TRUE　PAPER　WAS　INVENTEDCITATIONS

FROM　MUNSELL　ABOUT　CHINESE　AND　OTHER

ANCIENT　PAPERA　SHORT　CHRONOLOGY　FROM　THE

SAME　AUTHORLINEN　PAPER　IN　USE　IN　THE　TWELFTH

CENTURYBOMBYCINE　PAPERDEVELOPMENTS　OF

THE　MICROSCOPEMETHODS　EMPLOYED　IN　ASCERTAINING

ORIGIN　OF　LINEN　PAPER　BY　MEERMANSOME

OBSERVATIONS　RELATIVE　TO　THE　EVOLUTION　OF　PAPER

RAPID　IMPROVEMENT　IN　QUALITY　AFTER　INVENTION

OF　PRINTINGCURIOUS　CUSTOMS　IN　THE　USE　OF　THE

WATER　MARKNO　DISTINCTIONS　IN　QUALITY　OF　PAPER

USED　FOR　MSS。　OR　OTHER　BOOKSANECDOTES　AND

OBSERVATIONS　ABOUT　THE　WATER　MARKITS　VALUE

IN　DETECTING　FRAUDSINTERESTING　ANECDOTE　OF

ITS　USE　IN　FABRICATING　A　FRAUDFULLER'S　CHARACTERIZATION

OF　THE　PAPERS　OF　DIFFERENT　COUNTRIESWHEN

THE　FIRST　PAPER　MILL　WAS　ESTABLISHED

IN　EUROPE　FOR　THE　MANUFACTURE　OF　LINEN

PAPERDATE　OF　THE　ESTABLISHMENT　OF　THE　FIRST

PAPER　MILL　IN　AMERICAWHO　FIRST　SUGGESTED

WOOD　AS　A　MATERIAL　FOR　MAKING　PAPERSOME

NAMES　OF　AUTHORS　ON　THE　SUBJECT　OF　PAPERSTORY

OF　RAG　PAPER　INSTRUCTIVE　AS　WELL　AS　INTERESTING。



WHEN　it　was　that　the　great　change　occurred　and

true　paper　made　of　fibrous　matter　or　rags　reduced　to

a　pulp　in　water　was　invented　has　been　a　subject　of

considerable　thought　and　investigation。　Munsell；　in

his　〃Chronology　of　Paper　and　Paper…Making；〃　credits

it　to　the　Chinese；　and　esti