； tried to remain neutral or at least to appear so； and it is undoubtedly true that the Revolution was accomplished by an aggressive minority and that perhaps as great a number were actively loyal to Great Britain。 These Loyalists comprised at least two groups。 One of these was a wealthy； property…owning class； representing the best social element in the colonies； extremely conservative； believing in privilege and fearing the rise of democracy。 The other was composed of the royal officeholders； which included some of the better families； but was more largely made up of the lower class of political and social hangers…on； who had been rewarded with these positions for political debts incurred in England。 The opposition of both groups to the Revolution was inevitable and easily to be understood； but it was also natural that the Revolutionists should incline to hold the Loyalists； without distinction； largely responsible for British pre…Revolutionary policy； asserting that they misinformed the Government as to conditions and sentiment in America； partly through stupidity and partly through selfish interest。 It was therefore perfectly comprehensible that the feeling should be bitter against them in the United States； especially as they had given efficient aid to the British during the war。 In various States they were subjected to personal violence at the hands of indignant 〃patriots；〃 many being forced to flee from their homes； while their property was destroyed or confiscated； and frequently these acts were legalized by statute。 The historian of the Loyalists of Massachusetts； James H。 Stark； must not be expected to understate the case； but when he is describing； especially in New England； the reign of terror which was established to suppress these people； he writes： 〃Loyalists were tarred and feathered and carried on rails； gagged and bound for days at a time； stoned； fastened in a room with a fire and the chimney stopped on top； advertised as public enemies； so that they would be cut off from all dealings with their neighbors； they had bullets shot into their bedrooms； their horses poisoned or mutilated； money or valuable plate extorted from them to save them from violence； and on pretence of taking security for their good behavior； their houses and ships burned； they were compelled to pay the guards who watched them in their houses； and when carted about for the mob to stare at and abuse； they were compelled to pay something at every town。〃 There is little doubt also that the confiscation of property and the expulsion of the owners from the community were helped on by people who were debtors to the Loyalists and in this way saw a chance of escaping from the payment of their rightful obligations。 The 〃Act for confiscating the estates of certain persons commonly called absentees〃 may have been a measure of self…defense for the State but it was passed by the votes of those who undoubtedly profited by its provisions。 Those who had stood loyally by the Crown must in turn be looked out for by the British Government； especially when the claims of justice were reinforced by the important consideration that many of those with property and financial interests in America were relatives of influential persons in England。 The immediate necessity during the war had been partially met by assisting thousands to go to Canadawhere their descendants today form an important element in the population and are proud of being United Empire Loyalistswhile pensions and gifts were supplied to others。 Now that the war was over the British were determined that Americans should make good to the Loyalists for all that they had suffered； and His Majesty's Commissioners were hopeful at least of obtaining a proviso similar to the one relating to the collection of debts。 John Adams； however； expressed the prevailing American idea when he said that 〃paying debts and compensating Tories〃 were two very different things； and Jay asserted that there were certain of these refugees whom Americans never would forgive。 But this was the one thing needed to complete the negotiations for peace； and the British arguments on the injustice and irregularity of the treatment accorded to the Loyalists were so strong that the American Commissioners were finally driven to the excuse that the Government of the Confederation had no power over the individual States by whom the necessary action must be taken。 Finally； in a spirit of mutual concession at the end of the negotiations； the Americans agreed that Congress should 〃recommend to the legislatures of the respective states to provide for the restitution〃 of properties which had been confiscated 〃belonging to real British subjects；〃 and 〃that persons of any other description〃 might return to the United States for a period of twelve months and be 〃unmolested in their endeavours to obtain the restitution。〃 With this show of yielding on the part of the American Commissioners it was possible to conclude the terms of peace； and the preliminary treaty was drawn accordingly and agreed to on November 30； 1782。 Franklin had been of such great service during all the negotiations； smoothing down ruffed feelings by his suavity and tact and presenting difficult subjects in a way that made action possible； that to him was accorded the unpleasant task of communicating what had been accomplished to Vergennes； the French Minister； and of requesting at the same time 〃a fresh loan of twenty million francs。〃 Franklin； of course； presented his case with much 〃delicacy and kindliness of manner〃 and with a fair degree of success。 〃Vergennes thought that the signing of the articles was premature； but he made no inconvenient remonstrances； ill procured six millions of the twenty。〃* On September 3； 1783； the definite treaty of peace was signed in due time it was ratified by the British Parliament as well as by the American Congress。 The new state； duly accredited； thus took its place in the family of nations； but it was a very humble place that was first assigned to the United States of America。 * Channing； 〃History of the United States；〃 vol。 III； p。 368。
CHAPTER II。 TRADE AND INDUSTRY Though the word revolution implies a violent break with the past； there was nothing in the Revolution that transformed the essential character or the characteristics of the American people。 The Revolution severed the ties which bound the colonies to Great Britain； it created some new activities； some soldiers were diverted from their former trades and occupation； but； as the proportion of the population engaged in the war was relatively small and the area of country affected for any length of time was comparatively slight； it is safe to say that in general the mass of the people remained about the same after the war as before。 The professional man was found in his same calling； the artisan returned to his tools； if he had ever laid them down； the shopkeeper resumed his business； if it had been interrupted； the merchant went back to his trading； and the farmer before the Revolution remained a farmer afterward。 The country as a whole was in relatively good condition and the people were reasonably prosperous； at least； there was no general distress or poverty。 Suffering had existed in the regions ravaged by war； but no section had suffered unduly or had had to bear the burden of war during the entire period of fighting。 American products had been in demand； especially in the West India Islands； and an illicit trade with the enemy had sprung up； so that even during the war shippers were able to dispose of their commodites at good prices。 The Americans are commonly said to have been an agricultural people； but it would be more correct to say that the great majority of the people were dependent upon extractive industries； which would include lumbering； fishing； and even the fur trade； as well as the ordinary agricultural pursuits。 Save for a few industries； of which shipbuilding was one of the most important； there was relatively little manufacturing apart from the household crafts。 These household industries had increased during the war； but as it was with the individual so it was with the whole country； the general course of industrial activity was much the same as it had been before the war。 A fundamental fact is to be observed in the economy of the young nation： the people were raising far more tobacco and grain and were extracting far more of other products than they could possibly use themselves； for the surplus they must find markets。 They had； as well； to rely upon the outside world for a great part of their manufactured goods； especially for those of the higher grade。 In other words； from the economic point of view； the United States remained in the former colonial stage of industrial dependence； which was aggravated rather than alleviated by the separation from Great Britain。 During the colonial period； Americans had carried on a large amount of this external trade by means of their own vessels。 The British Navigation Acts required the transportation of goods in British vessels； manned by crews of British sailors； and specified certain commodities which could be shipped to Great Britain only。 They also required that much of the European trade should pass by way of England。 But colonial vessels and colonial sailors came under the designation of 〃British；〃 and no small part of the prosperity of New England； and of the middle colonies as well； had been due to the carrying trade。 It would seem therefore as if a primary need of the American people immediately after the Revolution was to get access to their old markets and to carry the goods as much as possible in their own vessels。 In some directions they were successful。 One of the products in greatest demand was fish。 The fishing industry had been almost annihilated by the war； but with the establishment of peace the New England fisheries began to recover。 They were in competition with the fishermen of France and England who were aided by large bounties； yet the superior geographical advantages which the American fishermen possessed enabled them to maintain and expand their business； and the rehabilitation of the fishing fleet was an important feature of their programme。 In other directions they were not so successful。 The British still