preserved monuments of this strange genealogy； we have no right to conclude that the ancient and now extinct species were as permanent in their forms and characters as those which exist at present； or； at least； that the catastrophe which destroyed them did not leave sufficient time for the productions of the changes that are alleged to have taken place。
〃In order to reply to those naturalists who acknowledge that the varieties of animals are restrained by nature within certain limits； it would be necessary to examine how far these limits extend。 This is a very curious inquiry； and in itself exceedingly interesting under a variety of relations； but has been hitherto very little attended to。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。
Wild animals which subsist upon herbage feel the influence of climate a little more extensively； because there is added to it the influence of food； both in regard to its abundance and its quality。 Thus the elephants of one forest are larger than those of another； their tusks also grow somewhat longer in places where their food may happen to be more favorable for the production of the substance of ivory。 The same may take place in regard to the horns of stags and reindeer。 But let us examine two elephants； the most dissimilar that can be conceived； we shall not discover the smallest difference in the number and articulations of the bones； the structure of the teeth； etc。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。
〃Nature appears also to have guarded against the alterations of species which might proceed from mixture of breeds by influencing the various species of animals with mutual aversion from one another。 Hence all the cunning and all the force that man is able to exert is necessary to accomplish such unions； even between species that have the nearest resemblances。 And when the mule breeds that are thus produced by these forced conjunctions happen to be fruitful； which is seldom the case； this fecundity never continues beyond a few generations； and would not probably proceed so far without a continuance of the same cares which excited it at first。 Thus we never see in a wild state intermediate productions between the hare and the rabbit； between the stag and the doe； or between the marten and the weasel。 But the power of man changes this established order； and continues to produce all these intermixtures of which the various species are susceptible； but which they would never produce if left to themselves。
〃The degrees of these variations are proportional to the intensity of the causes that produced themnamely； the slavery or subjection under which those animals are to man。 They do not proceed far in half…domesticated species。 In the cat； for example； a softer or harsher fur； more brilliant or more varied colors； greater or less sizethese form the whole extent of variety in the species； the skeleton of the cat of Angora differs in no regular and constant circumstances from the wild…cat of Europe。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。
The most remarkable effects of the influence of man are produced upon that animal which he has reduced most completely under subjection。 Dogs have been transported by mankind into every part of the world and have submitted their action to his entire direction。 Regulated in their unions by the pleasure or caprice of their masters； the almost endless varieties of dogs differ from one another in color； in length； and abundance of hair； which is sometimes entirely wanting； in their natural instincts； in size； which varies in measure as one to five； mounting in some instances to more than a hundredfold in bulk； in the form of their ears； noses； and tails； in the relative length of their legs； in the progressive development of the brain； in several of the domesticated varieties occasioning alterations even in the form of the head； some of them having long； slender muzzles with a flat forehead； others having short muzzles with a forehead convex； etc。； insomuch that the apparent difference between a mastiff and a water…spaniel and between a greyhound and a pugdog are even more striking than between almost any of the wild species of a genus。 。 。 。 。 。 。 。
It follows from these observations that animals have certain fixed and natural characters which resist the effects of every kind of influence； whether proceeding from natural causes or human interference； and we have not the smallest reason to suspect that time has any more effect on them than climate。
〃I am aware that some naturalists lay prodigious stress upon the thousands which they can call into action by a dash of their pens。 In such matters； however； our only way of judging as to the effects which may be produced by a long period of time is by multiplying； as it were； such as are produced by a shorter time。 With this view I have endeavored to collect all the ancient documents respecting the forms of animals； and there are none equal to those furnished by the Egyptians； both in regard to their antiquity and abundance。 They have not only left us representatives of animals； but even their identical bodies embalmed and preserved in the catacombs。
〃I have examined； with the greatest attention； the engraved figures of quadrupeds and birds brought from Egypt to ancient Rome； and all these figures； one with another； have a perfect resemblance to their intended objects； such as they still are to…day。
〃From all these established facts； there does not seem to be the smallest foundation for supposing that the new genera which I have discovered or established among extraneous fossils； such as the paleoetherium； anoplotherium； megalonyx； mastodon； pterodactylis； etc。； have ever been the sources of any of our present animals； which only differ so far as they are influenced by time or climate。 Even if it should prove true； which I am far from believing to be the case； that the fossil elephants； rhinoceroses； elks； and bears do not differ further from the existing species of the same genera than the present races of dogs differ among themselves； this would by no means be a sufficient reason to conclude that they were of the same species； since the races or varieties of dogs have been influenced by the trammels of domesticity； which those other animals never did； and indeed never could； experience。〃＇3＇
To Cuvier's argument from the fixity of Egyptian mummified birds and animals； as above stated； Lamarck replied that this proved nothing except that the ibis had become perfectly adapted to its Egyptian surroundings in an early day； historically speaking； and that the climatic and other conditions of the Nile Valley had not since then changed。 His theory； he alleged； provided for the stability of species under fixed conditions quite as well as for transmutation under varying conditions。
But； needless to say； the popular verdict lay with Cuvier； talent won for the time against genius； and Lamarck was looked upon as an impious visionary。 His faith never wavered； however。 He believed that he had gained a true insight into the processes of animate nature； and he reiterated his hypotheses over and over； particularly in the introduction to his Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres； in 1815； and in his Systeme des Connaissances Positives de l'Homme； in 1820。 He lived on till 1829； respected as a naturalist； but almost unrecognized as a prophet。
TENTATIVE ADVANCES
While the names of Darwin and Goethe； and in particular that of Lamarck； must always stand out in high relief in this generation as the exponents of the idea of transmutation of species； there are a few others which must not be altogether overlooked in this connection。 Of these the most conspicuous is that of Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus； a German naturalist physician； professor of mathematics in the lyceum at Bremen。
It was an interesting coincidence that Treviranus should have published the first volume of his Biologie； oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur； in which his views on the transmutation of species were expounded； in 1802； the same twelvemonth in which Lamarck's first exposition of the same doctrine appeared in his Recherches sur l'Organisation des Corps Vivants。 It is singular； too； that Lamarck； in his Hydrogelogie of the same date； should independently have suggested 〃biology〃 as an appropriate word to express the general science of living things。 It is significant of the tendency of thought of the time that the need of such a unifying word should have presented itself simultaneously to independent thinkers in different countries。
That same memorable year； Lorenz Oken； another philosophical naturalist； professor in the University of Zurich； published the preliminary outlines of his Philosophie der Natur； which； as developed through later publications； outlined a theory of spontaneous generation and of evolution of species。 Thus it appears that this idea was germinating in the minds of several of the ablest men of the time during the first decade of our century。 But the singular result of their various explications was to give sudden check to that undercurrent of thought which for some time had been setting towards this conception。 As soon as it was made clear whither the concession that animals may be changed by their environment must logically trend； the recoil from the idea was instantaneous and fervid。 Then for a generation Cuvier was almost absolutely dominant； and his verdict was generally considered final。
There was； indeed； one naturalist of authority in France who had the hardihood to stand out against Cuvier and his school； and who was in a position to gain a hearing； though by no means to divide the following。 This was Etienne Geoffroy Saint…Hilaire； the famous author of the Philosophie Anatomique； and for many years the colleague of Lamarck at the Jardin des Plantes。 Like Goethe； Geoffroy was pre…eminently an anatomist； and； like the great German； he had early been impressed with the resemblances between the analogous organs of different classes of beings。 He conceived the idea that an absolute unity of type prevails throughout organic nature as regards each set of organs。 Out of this idea grew his gradually formed belief that similarity of structure might imply identity of originthat； in short； one species of animal might have developed from another。
Geoffroy's grasp of this idea