used to create words。 There are few of them； about 100 altogether； and they form the basis of all
human spoken language。 No single language uses all 100 phonemes。 For instance； English uses
about 40。 We bine these units of sounds to make units of meaning。
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Criterion 2： Morphemes
Morphemes are the smallest units of language that have meaning。 Morphemes consist of what we
recognize as root words； stem words； prefixes； and suffixes。 Words that we recognize as meaningful
are made up of binations of morphemes。 We use rules to bine groupings of morphemes into
coherent sentences。
Criterion 3： Syntax
Syntax is a system of rules that specify how we bine words into phrases and sentences。
Looking back at the basics of spoken language； what inferences might we be able to make about the
controversy of whether the higher primates are capable of speech？ They seem able to meet the first
two criteria of language； the symbolic and generative requisites； but do they follow the structure of
language； according to the rules of syntax？ Not yet； at least so far as we have been able to
determine。
Language and the Human Child
Developmental Milestones
People learn to speak and use language in highly predictable ways。 Certain skills are required for
learning to speak； such as babies crying before coherent vocalization can occur。 Following crying；
babies babble at age 4 to 6 months； begin using phonemes at 7 to 11 months； and usually speak
their first real word at about 1 year of age。 Nouns such as “banana” or “bar” or “mom” get used a
lot at first to indicate the child’s wants。
Between 2 and 2。 years； sentences begin to appear and increase in plexity up to about age 5； at
which time the child has good syntactical capability and can even tell short stories （like the cat
drew the picture on my bedroom wall）。 One interesting aspect of language acquisition is that the
phonemes used during the first year by babies are cross…cultural。 The early sounds of all babies are
the same； regardless of the language spoken around the child or the language（s） he or she will
eventually learn to speak。 Why？ Because the first few sounds are easy to make； there are words and
sounds that are mon in a cross…cultural sense； such as “mama” and “pappa。” However； what
is the process once babies do begin to speak？
Overextensions
When learning to speak formally； children are limited by vocabulary size； so they generalize one
concept to include many others。 For example； if a child had learned to say “banana”； she may refer
to all fruit； generically； as “banana”； at least for a short time。 “Ball” is another frequently
generalized word； and is often applied to anything that is round。 This process exemplifies the
child’s use of one concept to include others beyond its original meaning。
Holophrases
Holophrases are single…word utterances that represent the meanings of several words。 This is due
to the child’s lack of ability to form more plex word patterns at an early age。 “Car” is an
example of a holophrase。 Many children simply say； “car” to indicate that they want to ride in a car
or to tell a parent to look at a car。 Before syntax； children express themselves by naming the most
critical aspects of a thought process。
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CHAPTER 9： COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Telegraphic Speech
Telegraphic Speech uses content words and leaves out prepositions； articles； and anything else that
is not critical to expression of the thought。 At this time； you get ments such as； “car fast。” As the
child’s vocabulary expands； sentences increase in length and their specific meaning bees easier
to discern。
Metalinguistic Awareness
Metalinguistic Awareness is the ability to think about using language。 Sentences get longer； more
plex； and you see the emergence of puns and jokes； such as play…on…word games； begin to
appear in the vocabulary of the school…aged child。
Language Acquisition Theories
For most of its history； psychology has expressed little interest in language。 Once it did express
interest in language； however； a number of theories followed in quick succession。
Learning Theories
B。 F。 Skinner proposed that children learn language by imitation and reinforcement。 This idea
would hold that children learn to speak by imitating older children and adults。 Specifically；
Skinner proposed that children learn by association of words within sentences； with each word
being a stimulus for the one following it。
Nativist Theories
This perspective was proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s and 60s as a rebuttal to Skinner’s
theory； a theory Chomsky regarded as flawed。 Chomsky felt that the flaw was in the association of
ideas； stating that if that was a valid premise； the same stimulus word would always lead to the
same response。 He proposed that humans are born with a “native” ability to learn language； that
we have a built…in or hardwired capability for language acquisition。 Part of Chomsky’s logic for his
theory is that the language acquisition process is the same； cross…culturally。 No matter where you
are or what language you learn to speak； the process is the same。 He felt that as children learn to
speak； they mastered two basic sets of rules about language and its use。 These are：
。 Phrase–structure rules that tell us how to bine words and phrases into sentences
。 Transformational rules that tell us how to make questions； negations； and other sentences
from declarative statements。
Cognitive Theories posit that language and thought are intermixed； throughout the cognitive
developmental process； and that language is reflective of the changing thought of the child； as he or
she matures。 This implies that in order to understand a child’s progress through the process of
language development； you must first understand the course of a child’s cognitive developmental
process。 This construct was advocated by Piaget； in his position that language development is
dependent on cognitive development。 Central to the cognitive theories of language acquisition are
the premises that：
。 Humans are born with limited capacity for information processing
。 Language acquisition places high demand on that capacity
。 Children learn and acquire language by listening； associating； attending； and remembering
word orders and meanings of words in conversations
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FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS
An example you might use is the “two…strings” problem。 In this problem； a person is placed in a
room。 There are two strings hanging from the ceiling。 The strings are far enough apart that you
cannot hold onto one string and reach the other one while it is hanging straight down。 Even if you
grab one string and pull it toward the other string as far as you can； the other string is just barely
out of reach。 In the corner of the room is a table with a screwdriver on it。 Your task is to hold onto
both strings at the same time。 To solve the problem； you must recognize that the screwdriver can be
tied to the bottom of the other string and used as a pendulum weight。 Then you can swing that
string back and forth。 While it is swinging； you can now grab the other string； pull it toward the
swinging string and grab it when it swings toward you。 Functional fixedness often prevents people
from seeing how to properly use the screwdriver。 （Note： Some problems are much easier to solve if
you can visually represent the problem。 This is one of those problems。 Students tend to have a much
easier time of it if they can see the situations represented in a drawing or photograph。）
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILES
Wolfgang K。hler （1887–1967）
K。hler was born in Estonia； grew up in northern Germany； and received his formal education at the
University of Berlin； obtaining his doctorate in 1909。 K。hler trained under both Carl Stumpf and the
eminent physicist； Max Planck。 While a postdoctoral research fellow at the University of Frankfurt；
K。hler served as a research participant for Max Wertheimer in studies of the phi illusion。 This
experience stimulated K。hler’s interest in such perceptual phenomena。 With Werthiemer and
another Frankfurt colleague； Kurt Koffka； he sparked the Gestalt movement in psychology。 While
stationed on Tenerife Island in the Canaries during World War I； K。hler conducted a classic
program of research on insight learning in apes。 In 1925； The Mentality of Apes was published and
became a monumental contribution to Gestalt literature。 In response to growing Nazism in Europe；
K。hler immigrated to the United States； assuming a position at Swarthmore College in 1935。 During
his American tenure； K。hler received many awards and citations from scientific associations；
including presidency of the American Psychological Association in 1959。
Herbert Simon （b。 1916）
Herbert Simon is a modern Renaissance man。 He is a creative and influential economist；
psychologist； political scientist； sociologist； puter scientist； and philosopher。 Simon is best
known as the winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1978。 Simon departed from then classic
economic theory by describing how modern businesses； in an increasingly plex world that
contains more relevant information than they can use； reach decisions that do not maximize profits
but merely seek to reach satisfactory goals。
Simon has been a member of Carnegie…Mellon University’s psychology department since 1949。 He
is the author or co…author of more than a dozen books on problem solving； models of thought；
discovery； organizations； public administration； and automation。 Simon’s father； an electrical
engineer； and mother； an acplished pianist； taught him that curiosity is the beginning of all
science and is to be encouraged in all areas。 If there was a question or phenomenon the Simons
failed to understand； they immediately set out to find the answers and reasons。
Simon applied the same rigorous methodology to his college major； political science； and to other
social science pursuits employed in the “hard” sciences。 As a result； his insight was demonstra