hus dismembered by the Titans； and whose passion； in Chios and Tenedos； was renewed each year by the sacrifice of a man who represented the god。＇4＇ Possibly it is this last fact which made people believe that the Christians （whose hoc est corpus meum and sharing of an Eucharistic meal were no more than a shadow of a more ancient rite） did really sacrifice a child and devour its limbs。〃
＇1＇ See Charles F。 Dupuis； 〃Traite des Mysteres；〃 ch。 i。
＇2＇ Pausan； Corinth； ch。 37。
＇3＇ Clem； Prot。 Eur。 Bacch。
＇4＇ See Porphyry； De Abstinentia； lii； Section 56。
That Eucharistic rites were very very ancient is plain from the Totem…sacraments of savages； and to this subject we shall now turn。
IV。 TOTEM…SACRAMENTS AND EUCHARISTS
Much has been written on the origin of the Totem…system the system； that is； of naming a tribe or a portion of a tribe （say a CLAN） after some ANIMALor sometimesalso after some plant or tree or Nature…element； like fire or rain or thunder； but at best the subject is a difficult one for us moderns to understand。 A careful study has been made of it by Salamon Reinach in his Cultes； Mythes et Religions；＇1＇ where he formulates his conclusions in twelve statements or definitions； but even sothough his suggestions are helpfulhe throws very little light on the real origin of the system。＇2＇
＇1＇ See English translation of certain chapters （published by David Nutt in 1912） entitled Cults； Myths and Religions； pp。 1…25。 The French original is in three large volumes。
＇2＇ The same may be said of the formulated statement of the subject in Morris Jastrow's Handbooks of the History of Religion； vol。 iv。
There are three main difficulties。 The first is to understand why primitive Man should name his Tribe after an animal or object of nature at all； the second； to understand on what principle he selected the particular name （a lion； a crocodile； a lady bird； a certain tree）； the third； why he should make of the said totem a divinity； and pay honor and worship to it。 It may be worth while to pause for a moment over these。
（1） The fact that the Tribe was one of the early things for which Man found it necessary to have a name is interesting； because it shows how early the solidarity and psychological actuality of the tribe was recognized； and as to the selection of a name from some animal or concrete object of Nature； that was inevitable； for the simple reason that there was nothing else for the savage to choose from。 Plainly to call his tribe 〃The Wayfarers〃 or 〃The Pioneers〃 or the 〃Pacifists〃 or the 〃Invincibles；〃 or by any of the thousand and one names which modern associations adopt； would have been impossible； since such abstract terms had little or no existence in his mind。 And again to name it after an animal was the most obvious thing to do； simply because the animals were by far the most important features or accompaniments of his own life。 As I am dealing in this book largely with certain psychological conditions of human evolution； it has to be pointed out that to primitive man the animal was the nearest and most closely related of all objects。 Being of the same order of consciousness as himself； the animal appealed to him very closely as his mate and equal。 He made with regard to it little or no distinction from himself。 We see this very clearly in the case of children； who of course represent the savage mind； and who regard animals simply as their mates and equals； and come quickly into rapport with them； not differentiating themselves from them。
（2） As to the particular animal or other object selected in order to give a name to the Tribe； this would no doubt be largely accidental。 Any unusual incident might superstitiously precipitate a name。 We can hardly imagine the Tribe scratching its congregated head in the deliberate effort to think out a suitable emblem for itself。 That is not the way in which nicknames are invented in a school or anywhere else to…day。 At the same time the heraldic appeal of a certain object of nature； animate or inanimate； would be deeply and widely felt。 The strength of the lion； the fleetness of the deer； the food…value of a bear； the flight of a bird； the awful jaws of a crocodile； might easily mesmerize a whole tribe。 Reinach points out； with great justice； that many tribes placed themselves under the protection of animals which were supposed （rightly or wrongly） to act as guides and augurs； foretelling the future。 〃Diodorus；〃 he says； 〃distinctly states that the hawk； in Egypt； was venerated because it foretold the future。〃 ＇Birds generally act as weather…prophets。＇ 〃In Australia and Samoa the kangaroo； the crow and the owl premonish their fellow clansmen of events to come。 At one time the Samoan warriors went so far as to rear owls for their prophetic qualities in war。〃 ＇The jackal； or 'pathfinder' whose tracks sometimes lead to the remains of a food… animal slain by a lion； and many birds and insects； have a value of this kind。＇ 〃The use of animal totems for purposes of augury is； in all likelihood； of great antiquity。 Men must soon have realized that the senses of animals were acuter than their own； nor is it surprising that they should have expected their totemsthat is to say； their natural alliesto forewarn them both of unsuspected dangers and of those provisions of nature； WELLS especially； which animals seem to scent by instinct。〃＇1＇ And again； beyond all this； I have little doubt that there are subconscious affinities which unite certain tribes to certain animals or plants； affinities whose origin we cannot now trace； though they are very realthe same affinities that we recognize as existing between individual PERSONS and certain objects of nature。 W。 H。 Hudsonhimself in many respects having this deep and primitive relation to nature speaks in a very interesting and autobiographical volume＇2＇ of the extraordinary fascination exercised upon him as a boy； not only by a snake； but by certain trees； and especially by a particular flowering…plant 〃not more than a foot in height； with downy soft pale green leaves； and clusters of reddish blossoms； something like valerian。〃 。 。 。 〃One of my sacred flowers；〃 he calls it； and insists on the 〃inexplicable attraction〃 which it had for him。 In various ways of this kind one can perceive how particular totems came to be selected by particular peoples。
＇1＇ See Reinach； Eng。 trans。； op。 cit。； pp。 20； 21。
＇2＇ Far away and Long ago （1918） chs。 xvi and xvii。
（3） As to the tendency to divinize these totems； this arises no doubt partly out of question （2）。 The animal or other object admired on account of its strength or swiftness； or adopted as guardian of the tribe because of its keen sight or prophetic quality； or infinitely prized on account of its food…value； or felt for any other reason to have a peculiar relation and affinity to the tribe； is by that fact SET APART。 It becomes taboo。 It must not be killedexcept under necessity and by sanction of the whole tribenor injured； and all dealings with it must be fenced round with regulations。 It is out of this taboo or system of taboos that； according to Reinach； religion arose。 〃I propose （he says） to define religion as： A SUM OF SCRUPLES （TABOOS） WHICH IMPEDE THE FREE EXERCISE OF OUR FACULTIES。〃＇1＇ Obviously this definition is gravely deficient； simply because it is purely negative； and leaves out of account the positive aspect of the subject。 In Man； the positive content of religion is the instinctive sensewhether conscious or subconsciousof an inner unity and continuity with the world around。 This is the stuff out of which religion is made。 The scruples or taboos which 〃impede the freedom〃 of this relation are the negative forces which give outline and form to the relation。 These are the things which generate the RITES AND CEREMONIALS of religion； and as far as Reinach means by religion MERELY rites and ceremonies he is correct； but clearly he only covers half the subject。 The tendency to divinize the totem is at least as much dependent on the positive sense of unity with it； as on the negative scruples which limit the relation in each particular case。 But I shall return to this subject presently； and more than once； with the view of clarifying it。 Just now it will be best to illustrate the nature of Totems generally； and in some detail。
＇1＇ See Orpheus by S。 Reinach； p。 3。
As would be gathered from what I have just said； there is found among all the more primitive peoples； and in all parts of the world； an immense variety of totem…names。 The Dinkas； for instance； are a rather intelligent well…grown people inhabiting the upper reaches of the Nile in the vicinity of the great swamps。 According to Dr。 Seligman their clans have for totems the lion； the elephant； the crocodile； the hippopotamus； the fox； and the hyena； as well as certain birds which infest and damage the corn； some plants and trees； and such things as rain； fire； etc。 〃Each clan speaks of its totem as its ancestor； and refrains ＇as a rule＇ from injuring or eating it。〃＇1＇ The members of the Crocodile clan call themselves 〃brothers of the crocodile。〃 The tribes of Bechuana…land have a very similar list of totem…namesthe buffalo； the fish； the porcupine； the wild vine； etc。 They too have a Crocodile clan； but they call the crocodile their FATHER！ The tribes of Australia much the same again； with the differences suitable to their country； and the Red Indians of North America the same。 Garcilasso； della Vega； the Spanish historian； son of an Inca princess by one of the Spanish conquerors of Peru and author of the well…known book Commentarias Reales； says in that book （i； 57）； speaking of the pre…Inca period； 〃An Indian （of Peru） was not considered honorable unless he was descended from a fountain； river or lake； or even from the sea； or from a wild animal； as a bear； lion； tiger； eagle； or the bird they call cuntur （condor）； or some other bird of prey。〃＇2＇ According to Lewis Morgan； the North American Indians of various tribes had for totems the wolf； bear； beaver； turtle； deer； snipe； heron； hawk； crane； loon； turkey； muskrat； pike； catfish； carp； buffalo； elk； reindeer； eagle； hare； rabbit； snake； reed…grass； sand； rock； and tobacco…plant。
＇1＇ See The Golden Bough； vol。 iv； p。 31。
＇2＇ See Andrew