beacon lights of history-iii-2- 第45部分

tranquillized。〃　　The　one　stormed　the　great　citadel　of　error；　the

other　furnished　the　weapons　for　holding　it　after　it　was　taken。　　The

former　was　more　popular；　the　latter　appealed　to　a　higher

intelligence。　　The　Saxon　reformer　was　more　eloquent；　the　Swiss

reformer　was　more　dialectical。　　The　one　advocated　unity；　the　other

theocracy。　　Luther　was　broader；　Calvin　engrafted　on　his　reforms　the

Old　Testament　observances。　　The　watchword　of　the　one　was　Grace；

that　of　the　other　was　Predestination。　　Luther　cut　knots；　Calvin

made　systems。　　Luther　destroyed；　Calvin　legislated。　　His　great

principle　of　government　was　aristocratic。　　He　wished　to　see　both

Church　and　State　governed　by　a　select　few　of　able　men。　　In　all　his

writings　we　see　no　trace　of　popular　sovereignty。　　He　interested

himself；　like　Savonarola；　in　political　institutions；　but　would

separate　the　functions　of　the　magistracy　from　those　of　the　clergy；

and　he　clung　to　the　notion　of　a　theocratic　government；　like　Jewish

legislators　and　the　popes　themselves。　　The　idea　of　a　theocracy　was

the　basis　of　Calvin's　system　of　legislation；　as　it　was　that　of　Leo

I。　　He　desired　that　the　temporal　power　should　rule；　in　the　name　of

God；should　be　the　arm　by　which　spiritual　principles　should　be

enforced。　　He　did　not　object　to　the　spiritual　domination　of　the

popes；　so　far　as　it　was　in　accordance　with　the　word　of　God。　　He

wished　to　realize　the　grand　idea　which　the　Middle　Ages　sought　for；

but　sought　for　in　vain；that　the　Church　must　always　remain　the

mother　of　spiritual　principles；　but　he　objected　to　the　exercise　of

temporal　power　by　churchmen；　as　well　as　to　the　interference　of　the

temporal　power　in　matters　purely　spiritual；virtually　the　doctrine

of　Anselm　and　Becket。　　But；　unlike　Becket；　Calvin　would　not　screen

clergymen　accused　of　crime　from　temporal　tribunals；　he　rather

sought　the　humiliation　of　the　clergy　in　temporal　matters。　　He　also

would　destroy　inequalities　of　rank；　and　do　away　with　church

dignitaries；　like　bishops　and　deans　and　archdeacons；　and　he

instituted　twice　as　many　laymen　as　clergymen　in　ecclesiastical

assemblies。　　But　he　gave　to　the　clergy　the　exclusive　right　to

excommunicate；　and　to　regulate　the　administration　of　the

sacraments。　　He　was　himself　a　high…churchman　in　his　spirit；　both　in

reference　to　the　divine　institution　of　the　presbyterian　form　of

government　and　the　ascendancy　of　the　Church　as　a　great　power　in　the

world。



Calvin　exercised　a　great　influence　on　the　civil　polity　of　Geneva；

although　it　was　established　before　he　came　to　the　city。　　He

undertook　to　frame　for　the　State　a　code　of　morals。　　He　limited　the

freedom　of　the　citizens；　and　turned　the　old　democratic　constitution

into　an　oligarchy。　　The　general　assembly；　which　met　twice　a　year；

nominated　syndics；　or　judges；　but　nothing　was　proposed　in　the

general　assembly　which　had　not　previously　been　considered　in　the

council　of　the　Two　Hundred；　and　nothing　in　the　latter　which　had　not

been　brought　before　the　council　of　Sixty；　nor　even　in　this；　which

had　not　been　approved　by　the　lesser　council。　　The　four　syndics；

with　their　council　of　sixteen；　had　power　of　life　and　death；　and　the

whole　public　business　of　the　state　was　in　their　hands。　　The　supreme

legislation　was　in　the　council　of　Two　Hundred；　which　was　much

influenced　by　ecclesiastics；　or　the　consistory。　　If　a　man　not

forbidden　to　take　the　Sacrament　neglected　to　receive　it；　he　was

condemned　to　banishment　for　a　year。　　One　was　condemned　to　do　public

penance　if　he　omitted　a　Sunday　service。　　The　military　garrison　was

summoned　to　prayers　twice　a　day。　　The　judges　punished　severely　all

profanity；　as　blasphemy。　　A　mason　was　put　in　prison　three　days　for

simply　saying；　when　falling　from　a　building；　that　it　must　be　the

work　of　the　Devil。　　A　young　girl　who　insulted　her　mother　was

publicly　punished　and　kept　on　bread…and…water；　and　a　peasant…boy

who　called　his　mother　a　devil　was　publicly　whipped。　　A　child　who

struck　his　mother　was　beheaded；　adultery　was　punished　with　death；　a

woman　was　publicly　scourged　because　she　sang　common　songs　to　a

psalm…tune；　and　another　because　she　dressed　herself；　in　a　frolic；

in　man's　attire。　　Brides　were　not　allowed　to　wear　wreaths　in　their

bonnets；　gamblers　were　set　in　the　pillory；　and　card…playing　and

nine…pins　were　denounced　as　gambling。　　Heresy　was　punished　with

death；　and　in　sixty　years　one　hundred　and　fifty　people　were　burned

to　death；　in　Geneva；　for　witchcraft。　　Legislation　extended　to　dress

and　private　habits；　many　innocent　amusements　were　altogether

suppressed；　also　holidays　and　theatrical　exhibitions。

Excommunication　was　as　much　dreaded　as　in　the　Mediaeval　church。



In　regard　to　the　worship　of　God；　Calvin　was　opposed　to　splendid

churches；　and　to　all　ritualism。　　He　retained　psalm…singing；　but

abolished　the　organ；　he　removed　the　altar；　the　crucifix；　and

muniments　from　the　churches；　and　closed　them　during　the　week…days；

unless　the　minister　was　present。　　He　despised　what　we　call　art；

especially　artistic　music；　nor　did　he　have　much　respect　for

artificial　sermons；　or　the　art　of　speaking。　　He　himself　preached　ex

tempore；　nor　is　there　evidence　that　he　ever　wrote　a　sermon。



Respecting　the　Eucharist；　Calvin　took　a　middle　course　between

Luther　and　Zwingli；believing　neither　in　the　actual　presence　of

Christ　in　the　consecrated　bread；　nor　regarding　it　as　a　mere　symbol；

but　a　means　by　which　divine　grace　is　imparted；　a　mirror　in　which　we

may　contemplate　Christ。　　Baptism　he　considered　only　as　an

indication　of　divine　grace；　and　not　essential　to　salvation；　thereby

differing　from　Luther　and　the　Catholic　church。　　Yet　he　was　as

strenuous　in　maintaining　these　sacraments　as　a　Catholic　priest；　and

made　excommunication　as　fearful　a　weapon　as　it　was　in　the　Middle

Ages。　　For　admission　to　the　Lord's　Supper；　and　thus　to　the

membership　of　the　visible　Church；　it　would　seem　that　his

requirements　were　not　rigid；　but　rather　very　simple；　like　those　of

the　primitive　Christians；namely；　faith　in　God　and　faith　in

Christ；　without　any　subtile　and　metaphysical　creeds；　such　as　one

might　expect　from　his　inexorable　theological　deductions。　　But　he

would　resort　to　excommunication　as　a　discipline；　as　the　only　weapon

which　the　Church　could　use　to　bind　its　members　together；　and　which

had　been　used　from　the　beginning；　yet　he　would　temper　severity　with

mildness　and　charity；　since　only　God　is　able　to　judge　the　heart。

And　herein　he　departed　from　the　customs　of　the　Middle　Ages；　and　did

not　regard　the　excommunicated　as　lost；　but　to　be　prayed　for　by　the

faithful。　　No　one；　he　maintained；　should　be　judged　as　deserving

eternal　death　who　was　still　in　the　hands　of　God。　　He　made　a　broad

distinction　between　excommunication　and　anathema；　the　latter；　he

maintained；　should　never；　or　very　rarely；　be　pronounced；　since　it

takes　away　the　hope　of　forgiveness；　and　consigns　one　to　the　wrath

of　God　and　the　power　of　Satan。　　He　regarded　the　Sacrament　of　the

Lord's　Supper　as　a　means　to　help　manifold　infirmities；as　a　time

of　meditation　for　beholding　Christ　the　crucified；　as　confirming

reconciliation　with　God；　as　a　visible　sign　of　the　body　of　Christ；

recognizing　his　actual　but　spiritual　presence。　　Luther　recognized

the　bodily　presence　of　Christ　in　the　Eucharist；　while　he　rejected

transubstantiation　and　the　idea　of　worshipping　the　consecrated

wafer　as　the　real　God。　　This　difference　in　the　opinion　of　the

reformers　as　to　the　Eucharist　led　to　bitter　quarrels　and

controversies；　and　divided　the　Protestants。　　Calvin　pursued　a

middle　and　moderate　course；　and　did　much　to　harmonize　the

Protestant　churches。　　He　always　sought　peace　and　moderation；　and

his　tranquillizing　measures　were　not　pleasant　to　the　Catholics；　who

wished　to　see　divisions　among　their　enemies。



Calvin　had　a　great　dislike　of　ceremonies；　festivals；　holidays；　and

the　like。　　For　images　he　had　an　aversion　amounting　to　horror。

Christmas　was　the　only　festival　he　retained。　　He　was　even

slanderously　accused　of　wishing　to　abolish　the　Sabbath；　the

observance　of　which　he　inculcated　with　the　strictness　of　the

Puritans。　　He　introduced　congregational　singing；　but　would　not

allow　the　ear　or　the　eye　to　be　distracted。　　The　music　was　simple；

dispensing　with　organs　and　instruments　and　all　elaborate　and

artistic　display。　　It　is　needless　to　say　that　this　severe

simplicity　of　worship　has　nearly　passed　away；　but　it　cannot　be

doubted　that　the　changes　which　the　reformers　made　produced　the

deepest　impression　on　the　people　in　a　fervent　and　religious　age。

The　psalms　and　hymns　of　the　reformers　were　composed　in　times　of

great　religious　excitement。　　Calvin　was　far　behind　Luther；　who　did

not　separate　the　art　of　music　from　religion；　but　Calvin　made　a

divorce　of　art　from　public　worship。　　Indeed；　the　Reformation　was

not　favorable　to　art　in　any　form　except　in　sacred　poetry；　it

declared　those　truths　which　save　the　soul；　rather　than　sought　those

arts　which　adorn　civilization。　　Hence　its　churches　were　barren　of

ornaments　and　symbols；　and　were　cold　and　repulsive　when　the　people

were　not　excited　by　religious　truths。　　Nor　did　they　favor　eloquence

in　the　ordinary　meaning　of　that　word。　　Pulpit　eloquence　was　simple；

direct；　and　without　rhetorical　devices；　seeking　effect　not　in

gestures　and　postures　and　modulated　voice；　but　earnest　appeals　to

the　heart　and　conscience。　　The　great　Catholic　preachers　of　the

eighteenth　centurylike　Bossuet　and　Bourdaloue　and　Massillon

surpassed　the　Protestants　as　rhetoricians。



The　simplicity　which　marked　the　worship　of　God　as　established　by

Calvin　was　also　a　feature　in　his　system　of　church　government。　　He

dispensed　with　bishops；　archdeacons；　deans；　and　the　like。　　In　his

eyes　every　man　who　preached　the　word　was　a　presbyter；　or　elder；　and

every　presbyter　was　a　bishop。　　A　deacon　was　an　officer　to　take　care

of　the　poor；　not　to　preach。　　And　it　was　necessary　that　a　minister

should　have　a　double　call；both　an　inward　call　and　an　outward

one；or　an　election　by　the　peopl