s one of intensity； for each gesture requires a powerful impulse and the more energetic is the one that succeeds in causing the gesture。 According to Herbert Spencer＇1＇ it is a general and important rule that any sensation which exceeds a definite intensity expresses itself ordinarily in activity of the body。 This fact is the more important for us inasmuch as we rarely have to deal with light and with not deep…reaching and superficial sensations。 In most cases the sensations in question ‘‘exceed a certain intensity；'' so that we are able to perceive a bodily expression at least in the form of a gesture。
The old English physician； Charles Bell；＇2＇ is of the opinion； in his cautious way； that what is called the external sign of passion is only the accompanying phenomenon of that spontaneous movement required by the structure； or better； by the situation of the body。 Later this was demonstrated by Darwin and his friends to be the indubitable starting point of all gesticulation：so； for example；
＇1＇ H。 Spencer： Essays； Scientific； etc。 2d Series
＇2＇ Charles Bell： The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression。 London 1806 and 1847。
the defensive action upon hearing something disgusting； the clenching of the fists in anger； or among wild animals； the baring of the teeth； or the bull's dropping of the head； etc。 In the course of time the various forms of action became largely unintelligible and significatory only after long experience。 It became； moreover； differently differentiated with each individual； and hence still more difficult to understand。 How far this differentiation may go when it has endured generation after generation and is at last crystallized into a set type； is well known； just as by training the muscles of porters； tumblers or fencers develop in each individual； so the muscles develop in those portions of our body most animated by the mindin our face and hands； especially； have there occurred through the centuries fixed expressions or types of movement。 This has led to the observations of common…sense which speak of raw； animal； passionate or modest faces； and of ordinary； nervous； or spiritual hands； but it has also led to the scientific interpretation of these phenomena which afterwards went shipwreck in the form of Lombroso's ‘‘criminal stigmata；'' inasmuch as an overhasty theory has been built on barren； unexperienced； and unstudied material。 The notion of criminal stigmata is； however； in no sense new； and Lombroso has not invented it； according to an incidental remark of Kant in his ‘‘Menschenkunde；'' the first who tried scientifically to interpret these otherwise ancient observations was the German J。 B。 Friedreich；＇1＇ who says expressly that determinate somatic pathological phenomena may be shown to occur with certain moral perversions。 It has been observed with approximate clearness in several types of cases。 So； for example； incendiarism occurs in the case of abnormal sexual conditions； poisoning also springs from abnormal sexual impulses； drowning is the consequence of oversatiated drink mania； etc。 Modern psychopathology knows nothing additional concerning these marvels； and similar matters which are spoken of nowadays again； have shown themselves incapable of demonstration。 But that there are phenomena so related； and that their number is continually increasing under exact observations； is not open to doubt。＇2＇ If we stop with the phenomena of daily life and keep in mind the ever…cited fact that everybody recognizes at a glance the old hunter； the retired officer； the actor； the aristocratic lady； etc。； we may go still further： the more trained observers can recognize the merchant； the official； the butcher； the shoe…maker； the real
＇1＇ J。 B。 Friedreich： System der Gericht。 Psych。
＇2＇ Cf。 Ncke in Gross's Archiv； I； 200； and IX； 253。
tramp； the Greek； the sexual pervert； etc。 Hence follows an important law_that if a fact is once recognized correctly in its coarser form； then the possibility must be granted that it is correct in its subtler manifestations_。 The boundary between what is coarse and what is not may not be drawn at any particular point。 It varies with the skill of the observer； with the character of the material before him； and with the excellence of his instruments； so that nobody can say where the possibility of progress in the matter ceases。 Something must be granted in all questions appertaining to this subject of recognizable unit…characters and every layman pursues daily certain activities based on their existence。 When he speaks of stupid and intelligent faces he is a physiognomist； he sees that there are intellectual foreheads and microcephalic ones； and is thus a craniologist； he observes the expression of fear and of joy； and so observes the principles of imitation； he contemplates a fine and elegant hand in contrast with a fat and mean hand； and therefore assents to the effectiveness of chirognomy； he finds one hand…writing scholarly and fluid； another heavy； ornate and unpleasant； so he is dealing with the first principles of graphology；all these observations and inferences are nowhere denied； and nobody can say where their attainable boundaries lie。
Hence； the only proper point of view to take is that from which we set aside as too bold； all daring and undemonstrated assertions on these matters。 But we will equally beware of asserting without further consideration that far…reaching statements are unjustified； for we shall get very far by the use of keener and more careful observation； richer material； and better instruments。
How fine； for example； are the observations made by Herbert Spencer concerning the importance of the ‘‘timbre'' of speech in the light of the emotional stateno one had ever thought of that before； or considered the possibilities of gaining anything of importance from this single datum which has since yielded such a rich collection of completely proved and correctly founded results。 Darwin knew well enough to make use of it for his own purposes。＇1＇ He points out that the person who is quietly complaining of bad treatment or is suffering a little； almost always speaks in a high tone of voice； and that deep groans or high and piercing shrieks indicate extreme pain。 Now we lawyers can make just such observations in great number。 Any one of us who has had a few experiences； can immediately recognize from the tone of voice with which a new
＇1＇ C。 Darwin： The Expression of the Emotions。
comer makes his requests just about what he wants。 The accused； for example； who by chance does not know why he has been called to court； makes use of a questioning tone without really pronouncing his question。 Anybody who is seriously wounded； speaks hoarsely and abruptly。 The secret tone of voice of the querulous； and of such people who speak evil of another when they are only half or not at all convinced of it； gives them away。 The voice of a denying criminal has in hundreds of cases been proved through a large number of physiological phenomena to do the same thing for him； the stimulation of the nerves influences before all the characteristic snapping movement of the mouth which alternates with the reflex tendency to swallow。 In addition it causes lapses in blood pressure and palpitation of the heart by means of disturbances of the heart action； and this shows clearly visible palpitation of the right carotid （well within the breadth of hand under the ear in the middle of the right side of the neck）。 That the left carotid does not show the palpitation may be based on the fact that the right stands in much more direct connection with the aorta。 All this； taken together； causes that so significant； lightly vibrating； cold and toneless voice； which is so often to be perceived in criminals who deny their guilt。 It rarely deceives the expert。
But these various timbres of the voice especially contain a not insignificant danger for the criminalist。 Whoever once has devoted himself to the study of them trusts them altogether too easily； for even if he has identified them correctly hundreds of times； it still may happen that he is completely deceived by a voice he holds as ‘‘characteristically demonstrative。'' That timbres may deceive； or simulations worthy of the name occur； I hardly believe。 Such deceptions are often attempted and begun； but they demand the entire attention of the person who tries them； and that can be given for only a short time。 In the very instant that the matter he is speaking of requires the attention of the speaker； his voice involuntarily falls into that tone demanded by its physical determinants： and the speaker significantly betrays himself through just this alteration。 We may conclude that an effective simulation is hardly thinkable。
It must； however； be noticed that earlier mistaken observations and incorrect inference at the present momentsubstitutions and similar mistakesmay easily mislead。 As a corroborative fact； then； the judgment of a voice would have great value； but as a means in itself it is a thing too little studied and far from confirmed。
There is； however； another aspect of the matter which manifests itself in an opposite way from voice and gesture。 Lazarus calls attention to the fact that the spectators at a fencing match can not prevent themselves from imitative accompaniment of the actions of the fencers； and that anybody who happens to have any swinging object in his hand moves his hand here and there as they do。 Stricker＇1＇ makes similar observations concerning involuntary movements performed while looking at drilling or marching soldiers。 Many other phenomena of the daily lifeas； for example； keeping step with some pedestrian near us； with the movement of a pitcher who with all sorts of twistings of his body wants to guide the ball correctly when it has already long ago left his hand； keeping time to music and accompanying the rhythm of a wagon knocking on cobblestones； even the enforcement of what is said through appropriate gestures when people speak vivaciouslynaturally belong to the same class。 So do nodding the head in agreement and shaking it in denial； shrugging the shoulders with a declaration of ignorance。 The expression by word of mouth should have been enough and have needed no