i。e。 to the state； whose care it must be that this tie is a hard and fast one。
§ 202。
The classes are specifically determined in accordance with the concept as
（a） the substantial or immediate ＇or agricultural＇ class；
（b） the reflecting or formal ＇or business＇ class； and finally；
（c） the universal class ＇the class of civil servants＇。
§ 203。
（a） The substantial ＇or agricultural＇ class has its capital in the natural products of
the soil which it cultivates — soil which is capable of exclusively private
ownership and which demands formation in an objective way and not mere
haphazard exploitation。 In face of the connection of ＇agricultural＇ labour and its
fruits with separate and fixed times of the year； and the dependence of harvests
on the variability of natural processes； the aim of need in this class turns into
provision for the future； but owing to the conditions here； the agricultural mode of
subsistence remains one which owes comparatively little to reflection and
independence of will； and this mode of life is in general such that this class has
the substantial disposition of an ethical life which is immediate； resting on family
relationship and trust。
Remark： The real beginning and original foundation of states has been rightly ascribed to the
introduction of agriculture along with marriage； because the principle of agriculture brings with it
the formation of the land and consequentially exclusively private property （compare Remark to §
170）； the nomadic life of savages； who seek their livelihood from place to place； it brings back to
the tranquillity of private rights and the assured satisfaction of their needs。 Along with these
changes； sexual love is restricted to marriage； and this bond in turn grows into an enduring league；
inherently universal； while needs expand into care for a family； and personal possessions into
family goods。 Security； consolidation； lasting satisfaction of needs； and so forth — things which are
the most obvious recommendations of marriage and agriculture — are nothing but forms of
universality； modes in which rationality； the final end and aim； asserts itself in these spheres。
In this matter； nothing is of more interest than the ingenious and learned explanations which my
distinguished friend； Herr Creuzer； has given of the agrarian festivals； images； and sanctuaries of
the ancients。 He shows that it was because the ancients themselves had become conscious of the
divine origin of agriculture and other institutions associated with it that they held them in such
religious veneration。
In course of time； the character of this class as ‘substantial’ undergoes modifications through the
working of the civil law； in particular the administration of justice； as well as through the working of
education； instruction； and religion。 These modifications； which occur in the other classes also； do
not affect the substantial content of the class but only its form and the development of its power of
reflection。
Addition： In our day agriculture is conducted on methods devised by reflective thinking； i。e。 like
a factory。 This has given it a character like that of industry and contrary to its natural one。 Still； the
agricultural class will always retain a mode of life which is patriarchal and the substantial frame of
mind proper to such a life。 The member of this class accepts unreflectively what is given him and
takes what he gets； thanking God for it and living in faith and confidence that this goodness will
continue。 What comes to him suffices him； once it is consumed； more comes again。 This is the
simple attitude of mind not concentrated on the struggle for riches。 It may be described as the
attitude of the old nobility which just ate what there was。 So far as this class is concerned； nature
does the major part； while individual effort is secondary。 In the business class； however； it is
intelligence which is the essential thing； and natural products can be treated only as raw materials。
§ 204。
（b） The business class has for its task the adaptation of raw materials； and for its
means of livelihood it is thrown back on its work； on reflection and intelligence；
and essentially on the mediation of one man’s needs and labour with those of
others。 For what this class produces and enjoys； it has mainly itself； its own
industry； to thank。 The task of this class is subdivided into
＇a＇ work to satisfy single needs in a comparatively concrete way and to
supply single orders — craftsmanship；
＇b＇ work of a more abstract kind； mass…production to satisfy single needs；
but needs in more universal demand — manufacture；
＇c＇ the business of exchange； whereby separate utilities are exchanged the
one for the other； principally through the use of the universal medium of
exchange； money； which actualises the abstract value of all commodities —
trade。
Addition： In the business class； the individual is thrown back on himself； and this feeling of
self…hood is most intimately connected with the demand for law and order。 The sense of freedom
and order has therefore arisen above all in towns。 The agricultural class； on the other hand； has
little occasion to think of itself； what it obtains is the gift of a stranger； of nature。 Its feeling of
dependence is fundamental to it； and with this feeling there is readily associated a willingness to
submit to whatever may befall it at other men’s hands。 The agricultural class is thus more inclined
to subservience； the business class to freedom。
§ 205。
（c） The universal class ＇the class of civil servants＇ has for its task the universal
interests of the community。 It must therefore be relieved from direct labour to
supply its needs； either by having private means or by receiving an allowance
from the state which claims its industry； with the result that private interest finds
its satisfaction in its work for the universal。
§ 206。
It is in accordance with the concept that class…organisation； as particularity
become objective to itself； is split in this way into its general divisions。 But the
question of the particular class to which an individual is to belong is one on which
natural capacity； birth； and other circumstances have their influence； though the
essential and final determining factors are subjective opinion and the individual’s
arbitrary will； which win in this sphere their right； their merit； and their dignity。
Hence what happens here by inner necessity occurs at the same time by the
mediation of the arbitrary will； and to the conscious subject it has the shape of
being the work of his own will。
Remark： In this respect too there is a conspicuous difference； in relation to the principle of
particularity and the subject’s arbitrary will； between the political life of the east and the west； and
also between that of the ancient and the modern world。 In the former； the division of the whole
into classes came about objectively of itself； because it is inherently rational； but the principle of
subjective particularity was at the same time denied its rights； in that； for example； the allotment of
individuals to classes was left to the ruling class； as in Plato’s Republic； or to the accident of birth；
as in the Indian caste…system。 Thus subjective particularity was not incorporated into the
organisation of society as a whole； it was not reconciled in the whole； and therefore — since as an
essential moment it emerges there in any event — it shows itself there as something hostile； as a
corruption of the social order （see Remark to § 185）Either it overthrows society； as happened in
the Greek states and in the Roman Republic； or else； should society preserve itself in being as a
force or as a religious authority； for instance； it appears as inner corruption and complete
degeneration； as was the case to some extent in Sparta and is now altogether the case in India。
But when subjective particularity is upheld by the objective order in conformity with it and is at the
same time allowed its rights； then it becomes the animating principle of the entire civil society； of
the development alike of mental activity； merit； and dignity。 The recognition and the right that what
is brought about by reason of necessity in civil society and the state shall at the same time be
effected by the mediation of the arbitrary will is the more precise definition of what is primarily
meant by freedom in common parlance （see § 121）。
§ 207。
A man actualises himself only in becoming something definite； i。e。 something
specifically particularised； this means restricting himself exclusively to one of the
particular spheres of need。 In this class…system； the ethical frame of mind
therefore is rectitude and esprit de corps； i。e。 the disposition to make oneself a
member of one of the moments of civil society by one’s own act； through one’s
energy； industry； and skill； to maintain oneself in this position； and to fend for
oneself only through this process of mediating oneself with the universal； while in
this way gaining recognition both in one’s own eyes and in the eyes of others。
Morality has its proper place in this sphere where the paramount thing is
reflection on one’s doings； and the quest of happiness and private wants； and
where the contingency in satisfying these makes into a duty even a single and
contingent act of assistance。
Remark： At first （i。e。 especially in youth） a man chafes at the idea of resolving on a particular
social position； and looks upon this as a restriction on his universal character and as a necessity
imposed on him purely ab extra。 This is because his thinking is still of that abstract kind which
refuses to move beyond the universal and so never reaches the actual。 It does not realise that if the
concept is to be determinate； it must first of all advance into the distinction between the concept
and its real existence and thereby into determinacy and particularity （see