n of grief； gives an air of peevishness。 If a child （see Plate IV。； fig。 2）＇8＇ frowns much whilst crying； but does not strongly contract in the usual manner the orbicular muscles； a well…marked expression of anger or even of rage； together with misery； is displayed。
＇7＇ ‘Miles Gloriosus；' act ii。 sc。 2。
If the whole frowning brow be drawn much downward by the contraction of the pyramidal muscles of the nose； which produces transverse wrinkles or folds across the base of the nose； the expression becomes one of moroseness。 Duchenne believes that the contraction of this muscle； without any frowning； gives the appearance of extreme and aggressive hardness。＇9＇ But I much doubt whether this is a true or natural expression。 I have shown Duchenne's photograph of a young man； with this muscle strongly contracted by means of galvanism； to eleven persons； including some artists； and none of them could form an idea what was intended； except one； a girl； who answered correctly； 〃surely reserve。〃 When I first looked at this photograph； knowing what was intended； my imagination added； as I believe； what was necessary； namely； a frowning brow； and consequently the expression appeared to me true and extremely morose。
＇8＇ The original photograph by Herr Kindermann is much more expressive than this copy； as it shows the frown on the brow more plainly。
＇9＇ ‘Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine；' Album； Legende iv。 figs。 16…18。
A firmly closed mouth； in addition to a lowered and frowning brow； gives determination to the expression； or may make it obstinate and sullen。 How it comes that the firm closure of the mouth gives the appearance of determination will presently be discussed。 An expression of sullen obstinacy has been clearly recognized by my informants； in the natives of six different regions of Australia。 It is well marked； according to Mr。 Scott； with the Hindoos。 It has been recognized with the Malays； Chinese； Kafirs； Abyssinians； and in a conspicuous degree； according to Dr。 Rothrock； with the wild Indians of North America； and according to Mr。 D。 Forbes； with the Aymaras of Bolivia。 I have also observed it with the Araucanos of southern Chili。 Mr。 Dyson Lacy remarks that the natives of Australia； when in this frame of mind； sometimes fold their arms across their breasts； an attitude which may be seen with us。 A firm determination； amounting to obstinacy； is； also； sometimes expressed by both shoulders being kept raised； the meaning of which gesture will be explained in the following chapter。
With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting； or； as it is sometimes called； 〃making a snout。〃＇10＇ When the corners of the mouth are much depressed； the lower lip is a little everted and protruded； and this is likewise called a pout。 But the pouting here referred to； consists of the protrusion of both lips into a tubular form； sometimes to such an extent as to project as far as the end of the nose； if this be short。 Pouting is generally accompanied by frowning； and sometimes by the utterance of a booing or whooing noise。 This expression is remarkable； as almost the sole one； as far as I know； which is exhibited much more plainly during childhood； at least with Europeans； than during maturity。 There is； however； some tendency to the protrusion of the lips with the adults of all races under the influence of great rage。 Some children pout when they are shy； and they can then hardly be called sulky。
＇10＇ Hensleigh Wedgwood on ‘The Origin of Language；' 1866； p。 78。
From inquiries which I have made in several large families； pouting does not seem very common with European children； but it prevails throughout the world； and must be both common and strongly marked with most savage races； as it has caught the attention of many observers。 It has been noticed in eight different districts of Australia； and one of my informants remarks how greatly the lips of the children are then protruded。 Two observers have seen pouting with the children of Hindoos； three； with those of the Kafirs and Fingoes of South Africa； and with the Hottentots； and two； with the children of the wild Indians of North America。 Pouting has also been observed with the Chinese； Abyssinians； Malays of Malacca； Dyaks of Borneo； and often with the New Zealanders。 Mr。 Mansel Weale informs me that he has seen the lips much protruded； not only with the children of the Kafirs； but with the adults of both sexes when sulky； and Mr。 Stack has sometimes observed the same thing with the men； and very frequently with the women of New Zealand。 A trace of the same expression may occasionally be detected even with adult Europeans。
We thus see that the protrusion of the lips； especially with young children； is characteristic of sulkiness throughout the greater part of the world。 This movement apparently results from the retention； chiefly during youth； of a primordial habit； or from an occasional reversion to it。 Young orangs and chimpanzees protrude their lips to an extraordinary degree； as described in a former chapter； when they are discontented； somewhat angry； or sulky； also when they are surprised； a little frightened； and even when slightly pleased。 Their mouths are protruded apparently for the sake of making the various noises proper to these several states of mind； and its shape； as I observed with the chimpanzee； differed slightly when the cry of pleasure and that of anger were uttered。 As soon as these animals become enraged； the shape of the month wholly changes； and the teeth are exposed。 The adult orang when wounded is said to emit 〃a singular cry； consisting at first of high notes； which at length deepen into a low roar。 While giving out the high notes he thrusts out his lips into a funnel shape； but in uttering the low notes he holds his mouth wide open。〃＇11＇ With the gorilla； the lower lip is said to be capable of great elongation。 If then our semi…human progenitors protruded their lips when sulky or a little angered； in the same manner as do the existing anthropoid apes； it is not an anomalous； though a curious fact； that our children should exhibit； when similarly affected； a trace of the same expression； together with some tendency to utter a noise。 For it is not at all unusual for animals to retain； more or less perfectly； during early youth； and subsequently to lose； characters which were aboriginally possessed by their adult progenitors； and which are still retained by distinct species； their near relations。
Nor is it an anomalous fact that the children of savages should exhibit a stronger tendency to protrude their lips； when sulky； than the children of civilized Europeans； for the essence of savagery seems to consist in the retention of a primordial condition； and this occasionally holds good even with bodily peculiarities。＇12＇ It may be objected to this view of the origin of pouting； that the anthropoid apes likewise protrude their lips when astonished and even when a little pleased； whilst with us this expression is generally confined to a sulky frame of mind。 But we shall see in a future chapter that with men of various races surprise does sometimes lead to a slight protrusion of the lips； though great surprise or astonishment is more commonly shown by the mouth being widely opened。 As when we smile or laugh we draw back the corners of the mouth； we have lost any tendency to protrude the lips； when pleased； if indeed our early progenitors thus expressed pleasure。
＇11＇ Muller； as quoted by Huxley； ‘Man's Place in Nature；' 1863； p。 38。
A little gesture made by sulky children may here be noticed； namely； their 〃showing a cold shoulder。〃 This has a different meaning； as； I believe； from the keeping both shoulders raised。 A cross child； sitting on its parent's knee； will lift up the near shoulder； then jerk it away； as if from a caress； and afterwards give a backward push with it； as if to push away the offender。 I have seen a child； standing at some distance from any one； clearly express its feelings by raising one shoulder； giving it a little backward movement； and then turning away its whole body。
_Decision or determination_。The firm closure of the mouth tends to give an expression of determination or decision to the countenance。 No determined man probably ever had an habitually gaping mouth。 Hence； also； a small and weak lower jaw； which seems to indicate that the mouth is not habitually and firmly closed； is commonly thought to be characteristic of feebleness of character。 A prolonged effort of any kind； whether of body or mind； implies previous determination； and if it can be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firmness before and during a great and continued exertion of the muscular system； then； through the principle of association； the mouth would almost certainly be closed as soon as any determined resolution was taken。 Now several observers have noticed that a man； in commencing any violent muscular effort； invariably first distends his lungs with air； and then compresses it by the strong contraction of the muscles of the chest； and to effect this the mouth must be firmly closed。 Moreover； as soon as the man is compelled to draw breath； he still keeps his chest as much distended as possible。
＇11＇ I have given several instances in my ‘Descent of Man；' vol。 i。 chap。 iv。
Various causes have been assigned for this manner of acting。 Sir C。 Bell maintains＇13＇ that the chest is distended with air； and is kept distended at such times； in order to give a fixed support to the muscles which are thereto attached。 Hence； as he remarks； when two men are engaged in a deadly contest； a terrible silence prevails； broken only by hard stifled breathing。 There is silence； because to expel the air in the utterance of any sound would be to relax the support for the muscles of the arms。 If an outcry is heard； supposing the struggle to take place in the dark； we at once know that one of the two has given up in despair。
Gratiolet admits＇14＇ that when a man has to struggle with another to his utmost； or has to support a great weight； or to keep for a long time the same forced attitude； it is necessary for him first to make a deep inspiration； and then to cease breathing； but he thinks that Sir C。 Bell's explanati