the mid…election in 1866； they organized a Congressional Campaign
Committee to conduct the canvass。 This practice has been
continued by both parties； and in 〃off〃 years it plays a very
prominent part in the party campaign。 Congress alone； however；
was only half the conquest。 It was only through control of the
Administration that access was gained to the succulent herbage of
federal pasturage and that vast political prestige with the voter
was achieved。
The President is nominally the head of his party。 In reality he
may not be； he may be only the President。 That depends upon his
personality； his desires； his hold upon Congress and upon the
people； and upon the circumstances of the hour。 During the Grant
Administration； as already described； there existed； in every
sense of the term； a federal machine。 It held Congress； the
Executive； and the vast federal patronage in its power。 All the
federal office…holders； all the postmasters and their assistants；
revenue collectors； inspectors； clerks； marshals； deputies；
consuls； and ambassadors were a part of the organization；
contributing to its maintenance。 We often hear today of the
〃Federal Crowd；〃 a term used to describe such appointees as still
subsist on presidential and senatorial favor。 In Grant's time；
this 〃crowd〃 was a genuine machine； constructed； unlike some of
its successors； from the center outward。 But the 〃boss〃 of this
machine was not the President。 It was controlled by a group of
leading Congressmen； who used their power for dictating
appointments and framing 〃desirable〃 legislation。 Grant； in the
imagination of the people； symbolized the cause their sacrifices
had won； and thus his moral prestige became the cloak of the
political plotters。
A number of the ablest men in the Republican party； however；
stood aloof； and by 1876 a movement against the manipulators had
set in。 Civil service reform had become a real issue。 Hayes； the
〃dark horse〃 who was nominated in that year； declared； in
accepting the nomination； that 〃reform should be thorough；
radical； and complete。〃 He promised not to be a candidate for a
second term； thus avoiding the temptation； to which almost every
President has succumbed； of using the patronage to secure his
reelection。 The party managers pretended not to hear these
promises。 And when Hayes； after his inauguration； actually began
to put them into force； they set the whole machinery of the party
against the President。 Matters came to a head when the President
issued an order commanding federal office…holders to refrain from
political activity。 This order was generally defied； especially
in New York City in the post…office and customs rings。 Two
notorious offenders； Cornell and Arthur； were dismissed from
office by the President。 But the Senate； influenced by Roscoe
Conkling's power； refused to confirm the President's new
appointees； and under the Tenure of Office Act； which had been
passed to tie President Johnson's hands； the offenders remained
in office over a year。 The fight disciplined the President and
the machine in about equal proportions。 The President became more
amenable and the machine less arbitrary。
President Garfield attempted the impossible feat of obliging both
the politicians and the reformers。 He was persuaded to make
nominations to federal offices in New York without consulting
either of the senators from that State； Conkling and Platt。
Conkling appealed to the Senate to reject the New York appointees
sent in by the President。 The Senate failed to sustain him。
Conkling and his colleague Platt resigned from the Senate and
appealed to the New York legislature； which also refused to
sustain them。
While this absurd farce was going on； a more serious ferment was
brewing。 On July 2； 1881； President Garfield was assassinated by
a disappointed office…seeker named Guiteau。 The attention of the
people was suddenly turned from the ridiculous diversion of the
Conkling incident to the tragedy and its cause。 They saw the
chief office in their gift a mere pawn in the game of
place…seekers； the time and energy of their President wasted in
bickerings with congressmen over petty appointments； and the
machinery of their Government dominated by the machinery of the
party for ignoble or selfish ends。
At last the advocates of reform found their opportunity。 In 1883
the Civil Service Act was passed； taking from the President about
14；000 appointments。 Since then nearly every President； towards
the end of his term； especially his second term； has added to the
numbers； until nearly two…thirds of the federal offices are now
filled by examination。 President Cleveland during his second term
made sweeping additions。 President Roosevelt found about 100；000
in the classified service and left 200；000。 President Taft；
before his retirement； placed in the classified service assistant
postmasters and clerks in first and second…class postoffices；
about 42；000 rural delivery carriers； and over 20；000 skilled
workers in the navy yards。
The appointing power of the President； however； still remains the
principal point of his contact with the machine。 He has； of
course； other means of showing partizan favors。 Tariff laws； laws
regulating interstate commerce； reciprocity treaties； 〃pork
barrels；〃 pensions； financial policies； are all pregnant with
political possibilities。
The second official unit in the national political hierarchy is
the House of Representatives； controlling the pursestrings； which
have been the deadly noose of many executive measures。 The House
is elected every two years； so that it may ever be 〃near to the
people〃！ This produces a reflex not anticipated by the Fathers of
the Constitution。 It gives the representative brief respite from
the necessities of politics； and hence little time for the
necessities of the State。
The House attained the zenith of its power when it arraigned
President Johnson at the bar of the Senate for high crimes and
misdemeanors in office。 It had shackled his appointing power by
the Tenure of Office Act； it had forced its plan of
reconstruction over his veto； and now it led him； dogged and
defiant； to a political trial。 Within a few years the character
of the House changed。 A new generation interested in the issues
of prosperity； rather than those of the war； entered public life。
The House grew unwieldy in size and its business increased
alarmingly。 The minority； meanwhile； retained the power； through
filibustering； to hold up the business of the country。
It was under such conditions that Speaker Reed； in 1890； crowned
himself 〃Czar〃 by compelling a quorum。 This he did by counting as
actually present all members whom the clerk reported as 〃present
but not voting。〃 The minority fought desperately for its last
privilege and even took a case to the Supreme Court to test the
constitutionality of a law passed by a Reed…made quorum。 The
court concurred with the sensible opinion of the country that
〃when the quorum is present； it is there for the purpose of doing
business；〃 an opinion that was completely vindicated when the
Democratic minority became a majority and adopted the rule for
its own advantage。
By this ruling； the Speakership was lifted to a new eminence。 The
party caucus； which nominated the Speaker； and to which momentous
party questions were referred； gave solidarity to the party。 But
the influence of the Speaker； through his power of appointing
committees； of referring bills； of recognizing members who wished
to participate in debate； insured that discipline and centralized
authority which makes mass action effective。 The power of the
Speaker was further enlarged by the creation of the Rules
Committee； composed of the Speaker and two members from each
party designated by him。 This committee formed a triumvirate （the
minority members were merely formal members） which set the limits
of debate； proposed special rules for such occasions as the
committee thought proper； and virtually determined the destiny of
bills。 So it came about； as Bryce remarks； that the choice of the
Speaker was 〃a political event of the highest significance。〃
It was under the regency of Speaker Cannon that the power of the
Speaker's office attained its climax。 The Republicans had a large
majority in the House and the old war…horses felt like colts。
They assumed their leadership； however； with that obliviousness
to youth which usually characterizes old age。 The gifted and
attractive Reed had ruled often by aphorism and wit； but the
unimaginative Cannon ruled by the gavel alone； and in the course
of time he and his clique of veterans forgot entirely the
difference between power and leadership。
Even party regularity could not long endure such tyranny。 It was
not against party organization that the insurgents finally raised
their lances； but against the arbitrary use of the machinery of
the organization by a small group of intrenched 〃standpatters。〃
The revolt began during the debate on the Payne…Aldrich tariff；
and in the campaign of 1908 〃Cannonism〃 was denounced from the
stump in every part of the country。 By March； 1910； the
insurgents were able； with the aid of the Democrats； to amend the
rules； increasing the Committee on Rules to ten to be elected by
the House and making the Speaker ineligible for membership。 When
the Democrats secured control of the House in the following year；
the rules were revised； and the selection of all committees is
now determined by a Committee on Committees chosen in party
caucus。 This change shifts arbitrary power from the shoulders of
the Speaker to the shoulders of the party chieftains。 The power
of the Speaker has been lessened but by no means destroyed。 He is
still the party chanticleer。
The political power of the House； however； cannot be calculated
without admitting to the equation the Senate； the third official
unit； and； indeed； the most powerful factor in the national
hierarchy。 The Senate shares equally with the House the
responsibility of lawmaking； and shares with the President the
responsibility of appointments and of treaty…making。 It has been
the scene of many memorable contests with the President for
political control。 The senators