city； was linked to the national organization。 A citizen of New
York； for instance； was not asked to vote for the Broadway
Franchise； which raised such a scandal in the eighties； but to
vote for aldermen running on a national tariff ticket！
The electorate was somnolent and permitted the politician to have
his way。 The multitudes of the city came principally from two
sources； from Europe and from the rural districts of our own
country。 Those who came to the city from the country were
prompted by industrial motives； they sought wider opportunities；
they soon became immersed in their tasks and paid little
attention to public questions。 The foreign immigrants who
congested our cities were alien to American institutions。 They
formed a heterogeneous population to whom a common ideal of
government was unknown and democracy a word without meaning。
These foreigners were easily influenced and easily led。 Under the
old naturalization laws； they were herded into the courts just
before election and admitted to citizenship。 In New York they
were naturalized under the guidance of wardheelers； not
infrequently at the rate of one a minute！ And； before the days of
registration laws； ballots were distributed to them and they were
led to the polls； as charity children are given excursion tickets
and are led to their annual summer's day picnic。
The slipshod methods of naturalization have been revealed since
the new law （1906） has been in force。 Tens of thousands of voters
who thought they were citizens found that their papers were only
declarations of intentions； or 〃first papers。〃 Other tens of
thousands had lost even these papers and could not designate the
courts that had issued them； and other thousands found that the
courts that had naturalized them were without jurisdiction in the
matter。
It was not merely among these newcomers that the boss found his
opportunities for carrying elections。 The dense city blocks were
convenient lodging places for 〃floaters。〃 Just before elections；
the population of the downtown wards in the larger cities
increased surprisingly。 The boss fully availed himself of the
psychological and social reactions of the city upon the
individual； knowing instinctively how much more easily men are
corrupted when they are merged in the crowd and have lost their
sense of personal responsibility。
It was in the city； then； that industrial politics found their
natural habitat。 We shall now scrutinize more closely some of the
developments which arose out of such an environment。
CHAPTER V。 TAMMANY HALL
Before the Revolutionary War numerous societies were organized to
aid the cause of Independence。 These were sometimes called 〃Sons
of Liberty〃 and not infrequently 〃Sons of St。 Tammany；〃 after an
Indian brave whom tradition had shrouded in virtue。 The name was
probably adopted to burlesque the royalist societies named after
St。 George； St。 David； or St。 Andrew。 After the war these
societies vanished。 But； in New York City； William Mooney； an
upholsterer； reorganized the local society as 〃Tammany Society or
Columbian Order；〃 devoted ostensibly to goodfellowship and
charity。 Its officers bore Indian titles and its ceremonies were
more or less borrowed from the red man； not merely because of
their unique and picturesque character； but to emphasize the
truly American and anti…British convictions of its members。 The
society attracted that element of the town's population which
delighted in the crude ceremonials and the stimulating potions
that always accompanied them； mostly small shopkeepers and
mechanics。 It was among this class that the spirit of discontent
against the power of Federalism was strongesta spirit that has
often become decisive in our political fortunes。
This was still the day of the 〃gentleman；〃 of small clothes；
silver shoe…buckles； powdered wigs； and lace ruffles。 Only
taxpayers and propertied persons could vote； and public office
was still invested with certain prerogatives and privileges。
Democracy was little more than a name。 There was； however； a
distinct division of sentiment； and the drift towards democracy
was accelerated by immigration。 The newcomers were largely of the
humble classes； among whom the doctrines of democratic discontent
were welcome。
Tammany soon became partizan。 The Federalist members withdrew；
probably influenced by Washington's warning against secret
political societies。 By 1798 it was a Republican club meeting in
various taverns； finally selecting Martling's 〃Long Room〃 for its
nightly carousals。 Soon after this a new constitution was adopted
which adroitly transformed the society into a compact political
machine； every member subscribing to the oath that he would
resist the encroachments of centralized power over the State。
Tradition has it that the transformer of Tammany into the first
compact and effective political machine was Aaron Burr。 There is
no direct evidence that he wrote the new constitution。 But there
is collateral evidence。 Indeed； it would not have been Burrian
had he left any written evidence of his connection with the
organization。 For Burr was one of those intriguers who revel in
mystery； who always hide their designs； and never bind themselves
in writing without leaving a dozen loopholes for escape。 He was
by this time a prominent figure in American politics。 His skill
had been displayed in Albany； both in the passing of legislation
and in out…maneuvering Hamilton and having himself elected United
States Senator against the powerful combination of the
Livingstons and the Schuylers。 He was plotting for the Presidency
as the campaign of 1800 approached； and Tammany was to be the
fulcrum to lift him to this conspicuous place。
Under the ostensible leadership of Matthew L。 Davis； Burr's chief
lieutenant； every ward of the city was carefully organized； a
polling list was made； scores of new members were pledged to
Tammany； and during the three days of voting （in New York State
until 1840 elections lasted three days）； while Hamilton was
making eloquent speeches for the Federalists； Burr was secretly
manipulating the wires of his machine。 Burr and Tammany won in
New York City； though Burr failed to win the Presidency。 The
political career of this remarkable organization； which has
survived over one hundred and twenty years of stormy history； was
now well launched。
》From that time to the present the history of Tammany Hall is a
tale of victories； followed by occasional disclosures of
corruption and favoritism； of quarrels with governors and
presidents； of party fights between 〃up…state〃 and 〃city〃； of
skulking when its sachems were unwelcome in the White House； of
periodical displays of patriotism for cloaking its grosser
crimes； of perennial charities for fastening itself more firmly
on the poorer populace which has always been the source of its
power； of colossal municipal enterprise for profit…sharing； and
of a continuous political efficiency due to sagacious leadership；
a remarkable adaptability to the necessities of the hour； and a
patience that outlasts every 〃reform。〃
It early displayed all the traits that have made it successful。
In 1801； for the purpose of carrying city elections； it provided
thirty…nine men with money to purchase houses and lots in one
ward； and seventy men with money for the same purpose in another
ward； thus manufacturing freeholders for polling purposes。 In
1806 Benjamin Romaine； a grand sachem； was removed from the
office of city controller by his own party for acquiring land
from the city without paying for it。 In 1807 several
superintendents of city institutions were dismissed for frauds。
The inspector of bread； a sachem； resigned because his threat to
extort one…third of the fees from his subordinates had become
public。 Several assessment collectors； all prominent in Tammany；
were compelled to reimburse the city for deficits in their
accounts。 One of the leading aldermen used his influence to
induce the city to sell land to his brother…in…law at a low
price； and then bade the city buy it back for many times its
value。 Mooney； the founder of the society； now superintendent of
the almshouse； was caught in a characteristic fraud。 His salary
was 1000 a year； with 500 for family expenses。 But it was
discovered that his 〃expenses〃 amounted to 4000 a year； and that
he had credited to himself on the books 1000 worth of supplies
and numerous sums for 〃trifles for Mrs。 Mooney。〃
In September； 1826； the Grand Jury entered an indictment against
Matthew L。 Davis and a number of other Tammany men for defrauding
several banks and insurance companies of over 2；000；000。 This
created a tremendous sensation。 Political influence was at once
set in motion； and only the minor defendants were sent to the
penitentiary。
In 1829 Samuel Swartwout； one of the Tammany leaders； was
appointed Collector of the Port of New York。 His downfall came in
1838； and he fled to Europe。 His defalcations in the Custom House
were found to be over 1；222；700； and 〃to Swartwout〃 became a
useful phrase until Tweed's day。 He was succeeded by Jesse Hoyt；
another sachem and notorious politician； against whom several
judgments for default were recorded in the Superior Court； which
were satisfied very soon after his appointment。 At this time
another Tammany chieftain； W。 M。 Price； United States District
Attorney for Southern New York； defaulted for 75；000。
It was in 1851 that the council commonly mown as 〃The Forty
Thieves〃 was elected。 In it William M。 Tweed served his
apprenticeship。 Some of the maneuvers of this council and of
other officials were divulged by a Grand Jury in its presentment
of February 23； 1853。 The presentment states： 〃It was clearly
shown that enormous sums of money were spent for the procurement
of railroad grants in the city； and that towards the decision and
procurement of the Eighth Avenue railway grant； a sum so large
that would startle the most credulous was expended； but in
consequence of the voluntary absence of important witnesses； the
Grand Jury was left without direct testimony of the particular
recipients of the different amounts。〃
These and other exposures brought on a number of