pported a settlement in accordance with Lincoln's policy。 Eight months later a majority； but a smaller one； would have supported Johnson's work had it been possible to secure a popular decision on it。 How then did the radicals gain the victory over the conservatives？ The answer to this question is given by James Ford Rhodes in terms of personalities： 〃Three men are responsible for the Congressional policy of Reconstruction： Andrew Johnson； by his obstinacy and bad behavior； Thaddeus Stevens； by his vindictiveness and parliamentary tyranny； Charles Sumner； by his pertinacity in a misguided humanitarianism。〃 The President stood alone in his responsibility； but his chief opponents were the ablest leaders of a resolute band of radicals。
Radicalism did not begin in the Administration of Andrew Johnson。 Lincoln had felt its covert opposition throughout the war； but he possessed the faculty of weakening his opponents； while Johnson's conduct usually multiplied the number and the strength of his enemies。 At first the radicals criticized Lincoln's policy in regard to slavery； and after the Emancipation Proclamation they shifted their attack to his 〃ten percent〃 plan for organizing the state governments as outlined in the Proclamation of December 1863。 Lincoln's course was distasteful to them because he did not admit the right of Congress to dictate terms； because of his liberal attitude towards former Confederates； and because he was conservative on the Negro question。 A schism among the Republican supporters of the war was with difficulty averted in 1864； when Fremont threatened to lead the radicals in opposition to the 〃Union〃 party of the President and his conservative policy。
The breach was widened by the refusal of Congress to admit representatives from Arkansas and Louisiana in 1864 and to count the electoral vote of Louisiana and Tennessee in 1865。 The passage of the Wade…Davis reconstruction bill in July 1864； and the protests of its authors after Lincoln's pocket veto called attention to the growing opposition。 Severe criticism caused Lincoln to withdraw the propositions which he had made in April 1865； with regard to the restoration of Virginia。 In his last public speech； he referred with regret to the growing spirit of vindictiveness toward the South。 Much of the opposition to Lincoln's Southern policy was based not on radicalism； that is； not on any desire for a revolutionary change in the South； but upon a belief that Congress and not the executive should be entrusted with the work of reorganizing the Union。 Many congressional leaders were willing to have Congress itself carry through the very policies which Lincoln had advocated； and a majority of the Northern people would have endorsed them without much caring who was to execute them。
The murder of Lincoln； the failure of the radicals to shape Johnson's policy as they had hoped； and the continuing reaction against the excessive expansion of the executive power added strength to the opposition。 But it was a long fight before the radical leaders won。 Their victory was due to adroit tactics on their own part and to mistakes； bad judgment； and bad manners on the part of the President。 When all hope of controlling Johnson had been given up； Thaddeus Stevens and other leaders of similar views began to contrive means to circumvent him。 On December 1； 1865； before Congress met； a caucus of radicals held in Washington agreed that a joint committee of the two Houses should be selected to which should be referred matters relating to reconstruction。 This plan would thwart the more conservative Senate and gain a desirable delay in which the radicals might develop their campaign。 The next day at a caucus of the Union party the plan went through without arousing the suspicion of the supporters of the Administration。 Next； through the influence of Stevens； Edward McPherson； the clerk of the House； omitted from the roll call of the House the names of the members from the South。 The radical program was then adopted and a week later the Senate concurred in the action of the House as to the appointment of a Joint Committee on Reconstruction。
On the issues before Congress both Houses were split into rather clearly defined factions： the extreme radicals with such leaders as Stevens； Sumner； Wade； and Boutwell； the moderate Republicans； chief among whom were Fessenden and Trumbull； the administration Republicans led by Raymond； Doolittle； Cowan； and Dixon； and the Democrats； of whom the ablest were Reverdy Johnson； Guthrie； and Hendricks。 All except the extreme radicals were willing to support the President or to come to some fairly reasonable compromise。 But at no time were they given an opportunity to get together。 Johnson and the administration leaders did little in this direction and the radicals made the most skillful use of the divisions among the conservatives。
Whatever final judgment may be passed upon the radical reconstruction policy and its results； there can be no doubt of the political dexterity of those who carried it through。 Chief among them was Thaddeus Stevens； vindictive and unscrupulous； filled with hatred of the Southern leaders； bitter in speech and possessing to an extreme degree the faculty of making ridiculous those who opposed him。 He advocated confiscation； the proscription or exile of leading whites； the granting of the franchise and of lands to the Negroes； and in Southern states the establishment of territorial governments under the control of Congress。 These states should； he said； 〃never be recognized as capable of acting in the Union 。 。 。 until the Constitution shall have been so amended as to make it what the makers intended； and so as to secure perpetual ascendancy to the party of the Union。〃
Charles Sumner； the leader of the radicals in the Senate； was moved less than Stevens by personal hostility toward the whites of the South； but his sympathy was reserved entirely for the blacks。 He was unpractical； theoretical； and not troubled by constitutional scruples。 To him the Declaration of Independence was the supreme law； and it was the duty of Congress to express its principles in appropriate legislation。 Unlike Stevens； who had a genuine liking for the Negro； Sumner's sympathy for the race was purely intellectual； for the individual Negro he felt repulsion。 His views were in effect not different from those of Stevens。 And he was practical enough not to overlook the value of the Negro vote。 〃To my mind；〃 he said； 〃nothing is clearer than the absolute necessity of suffrage for all colored persons in the disorganized states。 It will not be enough if you give it to those who read and write； you will not； in this way； acquire the voting force which you need there for the protection of unionists； whether white or black。 You will not secure the new allies who are essential to the national cause。〃 A leader of the second rank was his colleague Henry Wilson； who was also actuated by a desire for the Negro's welfare and for the perpetuation of the Republican party； which he said contained in its ranks 〃more of moral and intellectual worth than was ever embodied in any political organization in any land 。 。 。 created by no man or set of men but brought into being by Almighty God himself 。 。 。 and endowed by the Creator with all political power and every office under Heaven。〃 Shellabarger of Ohio was another important figure among the radicals。 The following extract from one of his speeches gives an indication of his character and temperament： 〃They ＇the Confederates＇ framed iniquity and universal murder into law 。 。 。 。 Their pirates burned your unarmed commerce upon every sea。 They carved the bones of the dead heroes into ornaments； and drank from goblets made out of their skulls。 They poisoned your fountains； put mines under your soldiers' prisons； organized bands whose leaders were concealed in your homes； and commissions ordered the torch and yellow fever to be carried to your cities and to your women and children。 They planned one universal bonfire of the North from Lake Ontario to the Missouri。〃
Among the lesser lights may be mentioned Morton and Wade； both bluff； coarse； and ungenerous； and thoroughly convinced that the Republican party had a monopoly of loyalty； wisdom； and virtues； and that by any means it must gain and keep control； Boutwell； fanatical and mediocre； and Benjamin Butler； a charlatan and demagogue。 As a class the Western radicals were less troubled by humanitarian ideals than were those of the East and sought more practical political results。
The Joint Committee on Reconstruction which finally decided the fate of the Southern states was composed of eight radicals； four moderate Republicans； and three Democrats。 As James Gillespie Blaine wrote later； 〃it was foreseen that in an especial degree the fortunes of the Republican party would be in the keeping of the fifteen men who might be chosen。〃 This committee was divided into four subcommittees to take testimony。 The witnesses； all of whom were examined at Washington； included army officers and Bureau agents who had served in the South； Southern Unionists； a few politicians； and several former Confederates； among them General Robert E。 Lee and Alexander H。 Stephens。 Most of the testimony was of the kind needed to support the contentions of the radicals that Negroes were badly treated in the South； that the whites were disloyal； that； should they be left in control； the Negro； free labor； the nation； and the Republican party would be in danger； that the army and the Freedmen's Bureau must be kept in the South； and that a radical reconstruction was necessary。 No serious effort； however； was made to ascertain the actual conditions in the South。 Slow to formulate a definite plan； the Joint Committee guided public sentiment toward radicalism； converted gradually the Republican Congressmen； and little by little undermined the power and influence of the President。
Not until after the new year was it plain that there was to be a fight to the finish between Congress and the President。 Congress had refused in December 1865； to accept the President's program； but there was still hope for a compromise。 Many conservatives had voted for the delay merely to assert the rights of Congress； but the radica