was an intense desire to learn。 They wished to read the Bible； to be preachers； to be as the old master and not have to work。 Day and night and Sunday they crowded the schools。 According to an observer；* 〃not only are individuals seen at study； and under the most untoward circumstances； but in very many places I have found what I will call 'native schools；' often rude and very imperfect； but there they are； a group； perhaps； of all ages； trying to learn。 Some young man； some woman； or old preacher； in cellar； or shed； or corner of a Negro meeting…house； with the alphabet in hand； or a town spelling…book； is their teacher。 All are full of enthusiasm with the new knowledge the book is imparting to them。〃
* J。 W。 Alvord； Superintendent of Schools for the Freedmen's Bureau； 1866。
Not only did the Negroes want schooling； but both the North and the South proposed to give it to them。 Neither side was actuated entirely by altruistic motives。 A Hampton Institute teacher in later days remarked： 〃When the combat was over and the Yankee school…ma'am followed in the train of the northern armies； the business of educating the Negroes was a continuation of hostilities against the vanquished and was so regarded to a considerable extent on both sides。〃
The Southern churches； through their bishops and clergy； the newspapers； and prominent individuals such as J。 L。 M。 Curry； John B。 Gordon； J。 L。 Orr； Governors Brown； Moore； and Patton； came out in favor of Negro education。 Of this movement General Swayne said： 〃Quite early 。 。 。 。 the several religious denominations took strong ground in favor of the education of the freedmen。 The principal argument was an appeal to sectional and sectarian prejudice； lest； the work being inevitable； the influence which must come from it be realized by others； but it is believed that this was but the shield and weapon which men of unselfish principle found necessary at first。〃 The newspapers took the attitude that the Southern whites should teach the Negroes because it was their duty； because it was good policy； and because if they did not do so some one else would。 The 〃Advertiser〃 of Montgomery stated that education was a danger in slavery times but that under freedom ignorance became a danger。 For a time there were numerous schools taught by crippled Confederates and by Southern women。
But the education of the Negro； like his religious training； was taken from the control of the Southern white and was placed under the direction of the Northern teachers and missionaries who swarmed into the country under the fostering care of the Freedmen's Bureau； the Northern churches； and the various Freedmen's Aid Societies。 In three years the Bureau spent six million dollars on Negro schools and everywhere it exercised supervision over them。 The teachers pursued a policy akin to that of the religious leaders。 One Southerner likened them to the 〃plagues of Egypt；〃 another described them as 〃saints； fools； incendiaries； fakirs； and plain business men and women。〃 A Southern woman remarked that 〃their spirit was often high and noble so far as the black man's elevation was concerned； but toward the white it was bitter； judicial； and unrelenting。〃 The Northern teachers were charged with ignorance of social conditions； with fraternizing with the blacks； and with teaching them that the Southerners were traitors； 〃murderers of Lincoln；〃 who had been cruel taskmasters and who now wanted to restore servitude。
The reaction against Negro education； which began to show itself before reconstruction was inaugurated； found expression in the view of most whites that 〃schooling ruins a Negro。〃 A more intelligent opinion was that of J。 L。 M。 Curry； a lifelong advocate of Negro education：
〃It is not just to condemn the Negro for the education which he received in the early years after the war。 That was the period of reconstruction； the saturnalia of misgovernment； the greatest possible hindrance to the progress of the freedmen 。 。 。 。 The education was unsettling； demoralizing； ＇and it＇ pandered to a wild frenzy for schooling as a quick method of reversing social and political conditions。 Nothing could have been better devised for deluding the poor Negro and making him the tool； the slave of corrupt taskmasters。 Education is a natural consequence of citizenship and enfranchisement 。 。 。 of freedom and humanity。 But with deliberate purpose to subject the Southern States to Negro domination； and secure the States permanently for partisan ends； the education adopted was contrary to commonsense； to human experience； to all noble purposes。 The curriculum was for a people in the highest degree of civilization； the aptitude and capabilities and needs of the Negro were wholly disregarded。 Especial stress was laid on classics and liberal culture to bring the race per saltum to the same plane with their former masters； and realize the theory of social and political equality。 A race more highly civilized； with best heredities and environments； could not have been coddled with more disregard of all the teachings of human history and the necessities of the race。 Colleges and universities； established and conducted by the Freedmen's Bureau and Northern churches and societies； sprang up like mushrooms； and the teachers； ignorant； fanatical； without self…poise； proceeded to make all possible mischief。 It is irrational； cruel； to hold the Negro； under such strange conditions； responsible for all the ill consequences of bad education； unwise teachers； reconstruction villainies； and partisan schemes。〃
* Quoted in 〃Proceedings of the Montgomery Conference on Race Problems〃 （1900）； p。 128。
Education was to be looked upon as a handmaid to a thorough reconstruction； and its general character and aim were determined by the Northern teachers。 Each convention framed a more or less complicated school system and undertook to provide for its support。 The Negroes in the conventions were anxious for free schools； the conservatives were willing； but the carpetbaggers and a few mulatto leaders insisted in several States upon mixed schools。 Only in Louisiana and South Carolina did the constitutions actually forbid separate schools； in Mississippi； Florida； Alabama； and Arkansas the question was left open； to the embarrassment of the whites。 Generally the blacks showed no desire for mixed schools unless urged to it by the carpetbaggers。 In the South Carolina convention； a mulatto thus argued in favor of mixed schools： 〃The gentleman from Newberry said he was afraid we were taking a wrong course to remove these prejudices。 The most natural method to effect this object would be to allow children when five or six years of age to mingle in schools together and associate generally。 Under such training； prejudice must eventually die out； but if we postpone it until they become men and women； prejudice will be so established that no mortal can obliterate it。 This； I think； is a sufficient reply to the argument of the gentleman。〃
The state systems were top…heavy with administrative machinery and were officered by incompetent and corrupt officials。 Such men as Cloud in Alabama； Cardozo in Mississippi； Conway in Louisiana； and Jillson in South Carolina are fair samples of them。 Much of the personnel was taken over from the Bureau teaching force。 The school officials were no better than the other officeholders。
The first result of the attempt to use the schools as an instrument of reconstruction ended in the ruin of several state universities。 The faculties of the Universities of North Carolina； Mississippi； and Alabama were made radical and the institutions thereupon declined to nothing。 The Negroes； unable to control the faculty of the University of South Carolina； forced Negro students in and thus got possession。 In Louisiana the radical legislature cut off all funds because the university would not admit Negroes。 The establishment of the land grant colleges was an occasion for corruption and embezzlement。
The common schools were used for radical ends。 The funds set aside for them by the state constitutions or appropriated by the legislatures for these schools seldom reached their destination without being lessened by embezzlement or by plain stealing。 Frequently the auditor； or the treasurer； or even the legislature diverted the school funds to other purposes。 Suffice it to say that all of the reconstruction systems broke down financially after a brief existence。
The mixed school provisions in Louisiana and South Carolina and the uncertainty of the educational situation in other States caused white children to stay away from the public schools。 For several years the Negroes were better provided than the whites； having for themselves both all the public schools and also those supported by private benevolence。 In Mississippi； Louisiana； and South Carolina the whites could get no money for schoolhouses； while large sums were spent on Negro schools。 The Peabody Board； then recently inaugurated；* refused to cooperate with school officials in the mixed school states and； when criticized； replied： 〃It is well known that we are helping the white children of Louisiana as being the more destitute from the fact of their unwillingness to attend mixed schools。〃
* To administer the fund bequeathed by George Peabody of Massachusetts to promote education in the Southern States。 See 〃The New South〃； by Holland Thompson （in 〃The Chronicles of America〃）。
As was to be expected； the whites criticized the attitude of the school officials； disapproved of the attempts made in the schools to teach the children radical ideas； and objected to the contents of the history texts and the 〃Freedmen's Readers。〃 A white school board in Mississippi； by advertising for a Democratic teacher for a Negro school； drew the fire of a radical editor who inquired： 〃What is the motive by which this call for a 'competent Democratic teacher' is prompted？ The most damning that has ever moved the heart of man。 It is to use the vote and action of a human being as a means by which to enslave him。 The treachery and villainy of these rebels stands without parallel in the history of men。〃
A Negro politician has left this account of a radical recitation in a Florida Negro school：
After finishing the