e） Experimenter told teacher to continue
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（i） Most participants plained or protested more；
saying they could not continue
（ii） Female participants were often in tears
f） Experimental situation produced great conflict in
participants
3。 Results
a） Psychiatrists had predicted participants would not “shock”
above 150 volts； presuming that only abnormal individuals
would blindly obey orders to harm another person
b） Psychiatrists based their evaluations on the presumed
dispositional qualities of participants； overlooking the power
of the situation
c） The majority of participants obeyed the authority fully。 They
may have dissented； but they did not disobey
d） Alternative explanations of results
（i） Participants may not have believed they were
actually shocking the confederate
（ii） Participant’s obedience may have been a function of
demand characteristics of the situation
4。 Why do people obey authority？
a） Power of the situation
（i） Obedience is due to situational； rather than
personality variables
（ii） Obedience is high when obedience is first modeled
by a peer or when a participant acts as an
intermediary bystander
b） Data indicate situational control of behavior； rather than
individual differences in participants
c） Other reasons include normative and informational sources
of influence…people want to be liked and correct
d） In ambiguous situations； people rely on others for cues for
appropriate behavior
e） Participants were probably be confused about how to
disobey
f） Obedience to authority is ingrained in childhood…obey
authority without question
5。 The Milgram experiments and You
a） Resisting situational forces requires both awareness and
acceptance of the fact that those forces can be powerful
enough to affect almost anyone
b） Even normal； well…meaning individuals are subject to
potential frailty in the presence of strong situational and
social forces
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C。 The Psychology of Genocide and War
1。 Ervin Staub suggests that this set of cultural and psychological forces
makes campaigns of terror possible：
a） The starting point is often severely difficult life conditions；
such as depression and political upheaval
b） Under conditions of difficulty； people intensify the ordinary
impulse to define in…groups and out…groups； creating
scapegoats
c） Because the scapegoat group is blamed for society’s ills； it
bees easy to justify violence against them
d） The violence against the scapegoat group begins to justify
itself…； stopping the violence would mean admitting that the
violence had been wrong to begin with
2。 Concepts and Images of the Enemy
a） When scapegoating does not lead to genocide； it may still
lead to the creation of enemies
b） Dehumanization； casting out…groups as animals； also helps
create images of the enemy
c） Why Will People Go to War？
（i） In modern times； countries rarely go to war with the
goal of domination or conquest。 Rather； they e
to believe that they are protecting interests that are
important to their survival and identity
D。 Peace Psychology
1。 The Peace Psychology Division of the American Psychological
Association works to promote peace in the world
2。 Forms of Leadership and Government
a） Early psychologists focused on understanding the nature of
the authoritarian personality behind the fascist mentality；
the effects of propaganda and persuasive munication；
and the impact of group atmosphere and leadership styles
on group members that developed during WW II
b） Leaders and authorities exert considerable power on group
behavior and on other people
c） Kurt Lewin investigated group dynamics； the ways in which
leaders directly influenced their followers and the ways in
which group processes changed the behavior of individuals
（i） Leadership styles
（a） Autocratic leaders： made all decisions and work
assignments； but did not participate in group
activities
（b） Democratic leaders： encouraged and assisted
group decision…making and planning
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（c） Laissez…faire leaders： allowed plete freedom；
with little leader participation
（ii） Results
（a） Autocratic leaders group members were
characterized by high levels of aggression and
greater hostility； were more demanding of
attention； were more likely to destroy their own
property； and displayed more scapegoating
behavior
（b） Democratic leaders group members worked the
most steadily and were most efficient； showed
highest levels of interest； motivation； and
originality； discontent was likely to be expressed
openly； and group loyalty increased
（c） Laissez…faire leaders group members were the
least efficient； did the least amount of work of
poorest quality； and goofed off
3。 Fostering Contact to Facilitate Conflict Resolution
a） The main approach of resolving conflict is the same one
described for healing other types of prejudices。 People must
be brought together in cooperative settings that can foster
mutual trust and shared goals
b） Interactive problem solving promises privacy and
confidentiality； as well as open analytic discussions。 It also
encourages appropriate expectations
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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 Ask your class how they think that they would have behaved if they were participants in
the Milgram studies。 Most students will respond that there is no way that they would
have shocked the helpless learner。 Explain to them that if they persist in believing this；
they have missed a crucial lesson of social psychology： that “good” people are often no
different from “bad” people。 The people are the same； it is the situation that is different。
Destructive behavior often results when normal people find themselves in powerful
situations。 The situation causes behavior； not the internal characteristics of the
individual。 The good members of your class cannot realistically expect that they would
behave differently in bad situations。
2。 Have members of your class give examples of situations in which they felt pressure to
behave in ways that they felt inappropriate。 How did they resolve the situation？ What
can be done to make nonconformity and disobedience a viable behavioral option？ Are
answers to this question likely to involve situational or dispositional changes？ Why？
3。 Discuss how aggression on television； in movies； and in other media influences
aggression in real life。 What should； or could； be done about this well…established
relationship？ Is censorship a viable response？ Why or why not？ What about self…
censorship？ Discuss how students can use this knowledge to reduce the likelihood that
they themselves will be aggressive。
4。 Discuss manipulation that might lead to increased altruism in society as a whole。 Simply；
what could be done to make our world more helpful？ Are dispositional or situational
manipulates likely to produce more significant change？ Why？ Which type of
manipulation would be easier to implement？
5。 Discuss the promise that social psychology and psychology in general hold for
improving our world。 One tremendous contribution of social psychology has been to
demonstrate that we do not need to change every single individual person。 Situational
changes can be made that affect all of the people that enter them。 This offers society a
cost…effective tool for addressing social problems。 To what problems does the class feel
that social psychology has the most to offer？ Why？
6。 You might ask students to voluntarily discuss if they have ever been discriminated
against or treated in some other prejudiced manner。 Often； those who engage in
discrimination do not care to think through the effects their behaviors have on the
individuals against whom they are discriminating。 By having students talk about their
first…hand experiences of receiving such treatment； it can often help sensitize other
students to the impact of prejudice and discrimination。 Racial； ethnic； and sexual
discrimination all take a heavy toll on their victims。 As part of this discussion； you might
ask those who are sharing their experiences to discuss the emotional impact and the
effects on their self…image that resulted from their experiences。
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SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
Prejudice
Prejudice between people is often one consequence of normative processes occurring within
groups。 Many groups exhibit an ethnocentric attitude that postulates： “My group； right or wrong；
your group； rarely right and probably wrong until proven otherwise。” Group membership gives
us security； status； a basis for reality testing； and much more that we need for both survival and
the flowering of the human spirit。 Alternatively； being identified as a member of a certain group
can also bring us insecurity； loss of self…esteem； and a precarious existence if others with power
choose to label our group as inferior。 The consequences of prejudice take many forms； but
mon to all of them is a less humane reaction to other people and a diversion of psychological
energy from creative to destructive directions。
Prejudice may be defined as a cluster of learned beliefs； attitudes； and values held by one person
about others that：
。 Is formed on the basis of inplete information
。 Is relatively immune to contradictory information
。 Makes a categorical assignment of individuals to certain classes or groups that are
（typically） negatively valued
Prejudice is the internal state or psychological set to react in a biased way toward members of
certain groups。 Discrimination is the constellation of behaviors that prejudice may give rise to。
petency knowledge es from observing the consequences of your actions； what you
achieve； and how your abilities； skills； and talents are realized。 Legitimacy knowledge es
from a variety of cultural sources by which your important group memberships…religious； racial；
ethnic；