1963 John F。 Kennedy was assassinated。
1966 S。 Sternberg published High Speed Scanning in Human Memory； providing the first
evidence that processing of searching information in short…term memory takes
place serially。
1968 Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin introduced the “three…system” model of
memory。
1969 The first moon landing occurred。
1972 F。 Craik and R。 Lockhart published their levels of processing model of memory；
the most successful petitor to the three…system model。
1972 J。 Bransford and J。 Franks published the results of an experiment showing that
people use schemas in recalling information。
1974 The Vietnam War ended。
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS
Berkerian； D。 A。 （1993）。 In Search of the Typical Eyewitness。 American Psychologist； 48（5）； 574–576。
Poses the question as to whether results of research in eyewitness testimony generalize to the
actual eyewitness。
Bruce； D。 （1994）。 Lashley and the Problem of Serial Order。 American Psychologist； 49（2）； 93–103。 An
overview of Lashley’s classic 1951 paper on serial order； with its foreshadowing of the ing
changes in linguistic and cognitive approaches to learning； memory； perception； and action。
Egeth； H。 E。 （1993）。 What Do We Not Know about Eyewitness Identification？ American Psychologist；
48（5）； 577–580。 Can the psychologists logically explain the research on eyewitness testimony to a
jury？
Loftus； E。； & Ketcham； K。 （1991）。 Witness for the Defense： The Accused； the Eyewitness； and the Expert
Who Puts Memory on Trial。 New York： St Martin’s Press。 A collection of true stories based on Dr。
Loftus’ experience as an expert witness。 Real…life courtroom dramas are used to illustrate
principles of memory and general psychology。
Loftus； E。 （1993）。 Psychologists in the Eyewitness World。 American Psychologist； 48（5）； 550–552。
Discussion of accurate identification of perpetrators and efforts to minimize false identifications。
Neath； I。 （1998）。 Human Memory： An Introduction to Research； Data； and Theory。 Pacific Grove：
Brooks/Cole Publishing Co。 An introduction to the field of human memory。 Strikes a balance
among history； theory； and current empirical research。 Imparts an appreciation for experimental
design。
Pressley； M。 （1997）。 Introduction to Memory： Development During Childhood and Adolescence。 Mahwah：
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates； Inc。 Summarizes theory and research on memory development in
children and adolescents from a broad perspective。 Includes European； Soviet； and American
contributions。
140
CHAPTER 8： MEMORY
DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 9： REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING
Overview
A look at the plex process called memory： how images； ideas； language； physical actions；
sounds； and smells are translated into codes； represented in the memory； and retrieved when
needed。
Key Issues
Long…term versus short…term memory； the chunking process； the peg…word mnemonic； painting
from memory； memory engrams； and organic amnesia。
Demonstrations
Gordon Bower demonstrates the peg…word mnemonic； a memory enhancing technique。
San Francisco artist Franco Magnani’s painting from childhood memories of Italy illustrates
the artist’s remarkable memory and his significant boyhood distortions。
Interviews
Gordon Bower explains mnemonic techniques。
Richard Thompson discovers one memory engram in his investigation of the neural circuits
involved in the memory of rabbits。
New Interview
Diana Woodruff…Pak experiments with “eyeblink classical conditioning。”
FILMS AND VIDEOS
The Brain： Learning and Memory （1984）。 PBS； 60 minutes
This program uses theories about brain organization； synaptic activity； and the hippocampus to
explain learning and forgetting。
Human Memory （1978）。 HARBJ； 25 minutes
Graphic demonstrations conducted by Gordon Bower of the processes of memory； memory aids；
and the cognitive distortions created while reconstructing memories。 Shows what it is like to have
no memory at all； how real learning involves the transfer of information from short…term to long…
term memory； and how the use of retrieval cues can improve one’s ability to remember。
Memory （1990）。 Insight Media； 30 minutes
Biological and cognitive research findings related to how we store； encode； and retrieve memories
are discussed by leading memory researchers。 The program shows what memory disturbances are
and how certain problems can results from accidents or disease。 Memory of dramatic events is
analyzed and the practical application of memory research to witness recall in criminal trials is
141
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
discussed。
Memory： Fabric of the Mind （1998）。 FFHS； 28 minutes
Examines information storage and retrieval in human memory。 A good review of memory research
and theory。 Selected for preview at the APA convention in 1989。
The Life of the Mind： Cognitive Processes and Memory （1991）。 The Teaching pany； in
collaboration with the Smithsonian。
One of eight lectures with Richard Gerrig from an award…winning teacher series。 This volume
explores cognitive processes and memory。
142
CHAPTER 8： MEMORY
143
CHAPTER 9
Cognitive Processes
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On pletion of this chapter； students should be able to：
1。 Describe the differences and similarities between automatic and controlled processes
2。 Define Grice’s maxims for language production
3。 Describe the various forms of ambiguity in language prehension
4。 Explain the significance of inference in the cognitive processing of language
5。 Demonstrate understanding of the significance of Paivio’s dual…coding theory
6。 Define “problem space；” and its relationship to problemsolving
7。 Suggests techniques to improve problem solving skills
8。 Elaborate on the difference between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning
9。 Understand the heuristics and biases involved in judgments and decision making
10。 Articulate the significance of framing and reference points relative to decision making
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I。 Studying Cognition
A。 Definitions
1。 Cognition is a general term for all forms of knowing
2。 The contents of cognition are what you know—concepts； facts；
propositions； rules； and memories
3。 Cognitive processes are how you manipulate these mental contents
4。 Cognitive psychology is the study of cognition
B。 Discovering the Processes of Mind
1。 Donders devised the subtraction method； one of the fundamental
methodologies for studying mental processes
2。 He proposed that extra mental steps will often result in more time
required to perform a given task
3。 Response selection requires more time than stimulus categorization；
because response selection includes stimulus categorization
4。 Reaction time has replaced the subtraction method as a method of
testing specific accounts of how a given cognitive process is carried
out
C。 Mental Processes and Mental Resources
1。 Demands on mental resources may help determine if a process is
144
CHAPTER 9： COGNITIVE PROCESSES
serial or parallel
a） Serial processes require separate examination of each
individual element in an array； one after another
b） Parallel processes entail the simultaneous examination of all
elements in an array
2。 Reaction time is often used to try to determine if a specific mental
process is carried out in parallel or serially
3。 A key assumption is that limited processing resources must be spread
over different mental tasks
4。 Attentional processes are responsible for distributing these resources
5。 Some processes place higher demands on mental resources dm do
others
6。 Controlled processes require attention and thus greater allocation of
mental resources
7。 Automatic processes generally do not require attention and can often be
performed along with other tasks without interference
D。 The goal of much cognitive psychological research is to invent experiments that confirm
each of the ponents of models that bine serial and parallel； and controlled and
automatic processes
II。Language Use
A。 Language Production
1。 Language production concerns what people say； as well as the
processes they go through to produce the message
a） Includes both signing and writing； as well as speaking
b） Refers to language producers as speakers and to language
understanders as listeners
2。 Audience design requires that； on producing an utterance； one must
have in mind the audience to which that utterance is directed and
what knowledge you share with members of that audience
a） The Cooperative Principle is instructs to speakers to produce
utterances appropriate to the setting and meaning of the
ongoing conversation。 There are four maxims that cooperative
speakers should live by：
（i） Quantity： Make your contribution as informative as is
required； but do not make it more informative than
required
（ii） Quality： Try to make your contribution one that is true
（iii） Relation： Be relevant
（iv） Manner： Be perspicacious； avoid obscurity of
expression； avoid ambiguity； be brief； be orderly
b） A presumption of the listener knowing all that you know is
referred to as mon ground。 Judgments of mon ground
are based on three sources of evidence：
145
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
（i） munity membership： Assumptions made by
language producers about what is likely to be
mutually known； based on shared membership in
munities of various sizes
（ii） Linguistic copresence： Assumptions made by language
producers that information contained in earlier parts
of a conversation； or in past conversations； are
mon ground
（iii） Physical copresence： Exists when a speaker and a
listener are directly in the physical presence of objects
or situations
3。 Speech Execution and Speech Errors
a） Speech errors give researchers insight into the planning
needed to produce utterances
（i） Speakers must choose content words that best fit their
ideas
（ii） Speakers must place the chosen words in the right
place in the utterance
（iii） Speakers must fill in the sounds that make up the
words they wish to utter