option
（iii） People do not like being accountable for decisions
that lead to bad outes
（iv） People do not like to make decisions for other people
3。 In some situations； people are decision seeking。 People are generally
happier to make decisions for themselves than to let others make
decisions for them
150
CHAPTER 9： COGNITIVE PROCESSES
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 The “Turing Test” is used to determine whether a puter possesses artificial intelligence。
In the test； a participant sits at a puter in one room and has a conversation with a
puter set up in another room。 If the participant cannot tell whether he or she is having
a conversation with a real person or with a puter； then the puter passes the test。
The participant can ask anything that he or she wants； there are no restrictions on
questions。 Have the class discuss what questions they would ask if they were participating
in a Turing test。 What responses would lead them to believe that they were having a
conversation with a puter or with a human？
2。 Almost everyone has experienced a “flash of insight” when the solution to a problem
seemed to appear suddenly in one’s mind。 Using personal experience as “data；” have the
class indicate how they would characterize the nature of insight？ What sort of process
seems to occur？ What triggers it？
3。 What is the motivation for engaging in reasoning for its own sake； as in solving crossword
puzzles？
4。 Have the class make simple judgments about the length of two lines drawn on the
chalkboard or the weight of typical classroom objects。 After the students make their
decision； ask them how they arrived at it。 Simple； straightforward decisions are often made
without conscious reflection or deliberation。 People simply “know” the correct answer。
What does this say about cognitive processes？
5。 Have the class consider the cognitive processes involved in reasoning。 What sort of
differences might you expect to see in these processes between a child of 4 and a child of
16？ What about those between a child of 16 and an adult of 45？ What about those between
an adult of 60 and an adult of 85？
6。 An interesting offshoot of this topic is the question of where is this taking us。 While for
now； AI is typically used in game and simulation programs and to help operate simple
logic functions of some mechanical devices； as it gets more sophisticated its applications
will continue to expand。 This raises the question of whether we will ever develop an AI
program as sophisticated as the human brain。 Some researchers believe this is just a matter
of time； others are not so sure。 But should we ever succeed at this； it raises some interesting
moral and spiritual questions。 Would such a machine be “conscious” and self…aware？
Would such a “self…aware” machine have “personality” or a “soul？” If we succeeded in
creating a machine with full self…awareness； would it be entitled to legal rights？ What
ethical considerations would e into play in regard to reprogramming this machine or
shutting it down？ While right now this is a question that lies in the realm of science fiction；
it may someday bee science reality。 How do students feel about this？ Do they believe
that we should even be trying to create such a machine？ What pros and cons do they see to
these efforts？
151
PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
Fallacies in the Use of Language
We often have lapses in critical thinking as we speak and write。 A fallacy is a plausible argument
that rests on invalid or false inferences。 Fallacies are often used unintentionally； but they may be
used intentionally when an effort is being made to influence the listener or reader。
。 “If you know about BMW； you either own one or you want one。”
Is there anything wrong with this statement？ If so； what is wrong with it？ It is an example of the
false alternative fallacy。 It is also called dualistic or black…and…white thinking； or bifurcation。 This
fallacy occurs when it is presumed that a classification is exclusive or exhaustive。 It often takes the
form of overlooking alternatives that exist between two polar opposites。 One example of false
alternatives was written by an educator； suggesting that children should begin public school at the
age of four and that high school should end after the eleventh year。 “Twelfth grade has bee a
bore for able students and a holding tank for the rest。” Given your own abilities for critical thinking；
what are your thoughts on that statement？
。 “I asked my doctor why my mouth was so dry； and he told me that it was because my
saliva glands are not producing enough saliva。”
What do you think of the doctor’s diagnosis？ This is an example of the fallacy of begging the question；
or circularity。 This fallacy occurs when the solution to a problem is a restatement of the problem； or
when the argument for a proposition is equivalent to the proposition。 Diagnosis of mental disorders
is sometimes considered to beg the question。 Consider the following exchange。
Question： Why is he so nervous and agitated？
Answer： He has Generalized Anxiety Disorder。
Question： What does that mean？
Answer： It means that he is constantly nervous and agitated。
As the questioner； you have no more knowledge at the end of the exchange than you did at the
beginning。 You have just been given a label for what you already know。 Some examples of this
fallacy seem ridiculous； but they occur frequently and are often generally accepted。 Consider
gravity。 We all know what it is； but does it really explain why objects are attracted to each other？
No； it simply labels the fact that they are。
· “He is an innocent man。 He was tried before a jury of his peers and the prosecution was
unable to prove him guilty。”
Is the assumption of innocence justified？ This is an example of the fallacy called appeal to ignorance。
This fallacy occurs when it is argued that because we cannot prove a proposition true； it must be
false； or if we cannot prove a proposition false； it must be true。 As an example； think about this
statement： “There has never been any scandal about this candidate for President。 Therefore； he
must be an honest； moral person。” Is that really true？
· “If you don’t pick up your clothes before you go to bed at night； pretty soon you’ll be knee
deep in dirty clothes。”
Is that the way it is？ This is an example of the slippery slope fallacy； certain applications of it have
152
CHAPTER 9： COGNITIVE PROCESSES
been called the domino theory。 The argument is that if the first in a possible series of steps or events
occurs； the other steps or events are inevitable。 Here is an example from a letter to the editor of a
metropolitan newspaper； in which the writer was responding to an article discussing the morality
of euthanasia in the case of a person with advanced multiple sclerosis。 “If we allow this to happen；
where do we stop？ Who would decide at what point someone should die？ Do we give them poison
the moment they know they have multiple sclerosis or cancer； before they have any suffering？”
。 “TV can’t be harmful for children because it occupies their attention for hours and keeps
them off the streets。”
Is this argument against the idea that TV can be harmful for children convincing？ It is an example
of the fallacy called irrelevant reason。 This fallacy occurs when the argument given to support a
proposition has little or no relevance to the original proposition。 Let us look at one more example。
“Conservationists have suggested that we could conserve fuel by increasing the tax on gasoline。
But more taxes； whether they’re paid by the oil panies or passed on to the consumer at the
pump； will not produce one more barrel of oil。”
· “I don’t see how he can get elected。 No one I know is going to vote for him。”
What’s wrong with this argument？ This is the hasty generalization fallacy。 It occurs when an
isolated or exceptional case is used as the basis for making a general conclusion。 In statistical
terms； it is making a conclusion about a population based on information obtained from a sample
that is biased or too small to be representative。 It is an error of inductive reasoning； going from the
particular to the general when it is not justified by the evidence。
。 “If socialized medicine will result in better and lower…cost health care； shouldn’t the same
logic be applied to automobiles？ Wouldn’t nationalization of the auto industry produce
better and lower…cost cars？ And if we nationalize auto mechanics； wouldn’t we get better
and less expensive repairs？”
These words were spoken in rebuttal after Senator Kennedy had called for national health
insurance in a speech at a meeting of the United Auto Workers。 Does the speaker’s argument make
sense？ It represents the questionable…analogy fallacy。 In a questionable analogy； an attempt is made to
make two situations seem more similar than they actually are。 A state senator； using the Crucifixion
as a rationale for capital punishment； gives another example； “Where would Christianity be if Jesus
got 8 to 15 years； with time off for good behavior？”
The underlying issue in the fallacies detailed above is the need for critical thinking on the part of
the listener。 Think about what was said。 This is one of the most important lessons of this course。
Does it make sense； or does it just sound impressive？ What motivation could the speaker or writer
have？ What would the writer or speaker like you to do based on their message？ Fallacies are not
necessarily bad； but they require far greater scrutiny than they generally receive。 Again； think
critically and use your abilities for processing information。
The Structure； Hierarchy； and Criterion of Language
Criterion 1： Phonemes
Phonemes are the perceptual units of which speech events are posed。 These basic sounds are
used to create words。 There are few of them； about 100 altogether； and they form the basis of all
human spoken language。 No single language uses all 100 phonemes。 For instance； English uses
about 40。 We bine thes