to a variety of college participants； and led to his receiving his Ph。D。 from the University of Chicago
in 1943 despite his being involved in numerous academic and work projects。
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His major professional life divides into two periods。 In the first； from 1947 to 1958； he focused on
decisions； particularly in organizations。 This is Simon’s work that is best known in economics；
political science； and sociology。 Since 1958； Simon’s major interest shifted to human problem
solving and artificial intelligence。 Much of his work； done in collaboration with Allen Newell； is
best known in psychology and puter science。 Simon demonstrated how psychological
phenomena such as intelligent decision making could be simulated by modem high…speed
puters。 These mechanical information processors could be programmed to play a winning
game of chess or to produce their own programs to solve a problem。
One of the programs he developed； now known as the General Problem Solver （GPS）； involves a
strategy that many expert human problem solvers use。 Called subgoal analysis； this strategy
involves two processes that follow each other in repeated cycles。 The first is to determine
appropriate subgoals and select a promising one for further exploration。 An example of a subgoal
in this course is to earn a desirable midterm grade。 The second GPS process is to identify any
difference between a subgoal and the current situation and then eliminate or reduce this difference。
If you are not currently headed toward the grade you want； your puter—mental or
mechanical—runs through strategies for changing conditions to achieve that subgoal。 If the initial
subgoal cannot be achieved； the cycle continues with different； perhaps initially smaller； subgoals。
Setting subgoals and reducing discrepancies is the heuristic by which GPS approximates the
systematic progress of efficient human problem solving。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
TIMELINE
Year Event
1925 Wolfgang K。hler published The Mentality of Apes； documenting his studies of
insight learning principles。
19391945
World War II was fought。
1945 Karl Duncker published On Problem Solving； a summary of his research and
thinking on problem solving and impediments to effective problem solving。
19501953
The Korean War was fought。
1956 Allen Newell and Herbert Simon published The Logic Theory Machine： A plex
Information； Processing System。
1959 Donald Broadbent published Perception and munication； outlining a new and
important theory of attention。
1963 John F。 Kennedy was assassinated。
1972 J。 Bransford and J。 Franks published the results of an experiment showing that
people use schemas in recalling information。
1972 Allen Newell and Herbert Simon published Human Problem Solving； summarizing
the cognitive model of problem solving in humans。
1973 Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman published “On the Psychology of
Prediction”； a paper outlining the means by which people make decisions and
describing some of the notable errors in decision making。
1973 W。 Chase and Herbert Simon published The Mind’s Eye in Chess； stimulating
interest in understanding expert systems。
1974 The Vietnam War ended。
1976 U。 Neisser published Cognition and Reality； one of the earlier texts to set forth
clearly the principles of cognitive psychology。
1978 E。 Rosch published Principles of Categorization； a summary of her work on concept
formation showing that people base some forms of psychological inferences on
naturally occurring concepts。
1980 Ronald Reagan was elected President of the United States of America。
1982 R。 Shepherd and L。 Cooper published Mental Images and Their Transformations； a
summary of the kinds of mental manipulations involved in imagining。
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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS
Clark； H。 （1996）。 Using Language。 Cambridge： Cambridge University Press。 Suggests that language is
a joint action carried out by two or more people acting in concert with each other。 Clark sets
language in a social context and argues that language is more than just the sum of a speaker and
a separate listener。
Gabrieti； J。 D。 E。 （1998）。 Cognitive Neuroscience of Human Memory。 Annual Review of Psychology； 49；
87–115。 Summarizes current knowledge on long…term memory processes and discusses memory
in terms of neural networks that support specific mnemonic processes。 Research from
neurophysiological studies is used to explain the memory functioning in normal individuals
and in individuals with several forms of memory impairment。
Gazzaniga； M。 （1995）。 The Cognitive Neurosciences。 Cambridge： MIT Press。 An important work that
helps define the rapidly emerging field of cognitive neuroscience。 Contains the views and ideas
of many leaders in the field。
Kosslyn； S。 M。； & Koenig； O。 （1992）。 Chapter 2： putation in the Brain。 In Wet Mind： The New
Cognitive Neuroscience； pp。 17–51。 A wonderful volume that marries the fields of cognitive and
neuropsychology in a concise and readable format。
McLeod； P。； Plunkett； K。； & Rolls； E。 （1998）。 Introduction to Connectionist Modeling of Cognitive
Processes。 New York： Oxford University Press。 Introduces students to the connectionist model of
cognitive processes。 Provides custom software； “Learn；” that allows students to create their own
models。 （“Learn” runs on both PC and Mac systems。）
McNeil； D。 （1987）。 Psycholinguistics： A New Approach。 New York： Harper & Row。 A short but
plete look at the relationship between linguistics and psychology。 Extended coverage of
linguistic relativity as well as gesture and sign language。
Posner； M。 （1989）。 Foundations of Cognitive Science。 Cambridge： MIT Press。 A thorough reference on
the field of cognitive science； with contributions from leading researchers。
Premack； D。 （1986）。 Gavagai！ The Future History of the Ape Language Controversy。 Cambridge： MIT
Press。 A personal look by one of the leading figures in primate munication into the major
issues surrounding the ape language controversy。
Reed； S。 （1997）。 Cognition： Theory and Applications （4th ed。）。 Pacific Grove： Brooks/Cole Publishing。
Provides an overview of the major theories and experimental findings in the field of cognitive
psychology。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
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DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY
PROGRAM 10： COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Overview
An exploration into the higher mental processes—reasoning； planning； and problem solving—
and why the cognitive revolution is attracting such diverse investigators； from philosophers to
puter scientists。
Key Issues
The impact of the puter on the study of cognitive psychology； puters that think like
human beings； the parts of the brain used in reading； how human beings organize and
categorize concepts； and how the human mind and puters think alike。
Demonstration
Analysis of cerebral blood flow during cognitive tasks。
Interviews
Leading cognitive psychologist Howard Gardner discusses the impact of the puter on the
study of cognitive psychology。
Nobel Prize winner Herbert Simon discusses his work on producing a puter that thinks
and solves problems like a human。
Michael Posner uses brain…imaging techniques to explore what parts of the brain are used
during reading。
Robert Glaser examines why some individuals have not developed basic skills in various types
of learning while others have developed high levels of prehension。
PROGRAM 11： JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING
Overview
A look at the process of making judgments and decisions； how and why people make good and
bad judgments； and the psychology of risk taking。
Key Issues
The relationship between judgment and decision making； groupthink exhibited in The Bay of
Pigs cabinet meetings； Cognitive Dissonance theory and experiments； and good versus poor
negotiating techniques
Archival Demonstrations
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman use “person in the street” respondents to illustrate
fallacies of human intuition。
Training program to improve decision making。
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
Classic early dissonance experiment by Festinger and Carlsmith。
Interviews
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman examine the relationship between decision making and
the principles of availability； reasoning by similarity； anchoring effect； and risk aversion。
Psychologist Irving Janis discusses his study on the impact of groupthink on the Kennedy
administration’s decision to implement The Bay of Pigs operation。
Max Bazerman examines good and bad negotiating techniques。
Psychologist Leon Festinger examines how people e to love the things for which they suffer。
FILMS AND VIDEOS
Age of Intelligent Machines （1987）。 IU （AIMS）； 29 minutes
Examines the world of artificial intelligence （AI） and expert systems。 Looks at how a new
generation of machines can perform functions once thought impossible； such as diagnose illnesses；
create original art； and navigate jets。 Explains that one of the major goals of AI research is to learn
how the human brain works and to duplicate the human ability to use judgment。 Features
contributions by many leading researchers。
Can We Talk to the Animals？ （1987）。 IU （CORT）； 30 minutes
Examines research on human–animal munication that indicates chimpanzees and dolphins
are capable of understanding words rather than just exhibiting learned responses。
munication： The Nonverbal Agenda （1988）。 CRM； 30 minutes
Provides an overview of the field of nonverbal munication。 Examines how a variety of
behaviors； such as tone of voice； posture； facial expressions； use of space； eye contact； and body
movement may either reinforce or contradict verbal messages。
The Mind： Thinking （1988）。 CRM； 24 minutes
Thinking is defined as the ability to manipulate a model of the world and to plan a course of
appropriate action。 Discusses two “failures” in psychology created by our misunderstanding of
thinking： the Prefrontal Lobotomies and the use of IQ Tests to measure thinking。
CASE ST