心理学与生活- 第74部分

c）　Share　feelings；　joys；　and　worries　with　social　support　network　

d）　Develop　a　sense　of　balanced　time　perspective　

e）　Take　credit　for　your　successes　and　happiness　

f）　When　feeling　you　are　losing　control　over　emotions；　distance　yourself　
from　situation　to　gain　perspective　

g）　Learn　from　your　failures　

h）　If　you　are　unable　to　help　either　yourself　or　another　individual　in　
distress；　seek　the　counsel　of　a　trained　specialist　

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i）　Cultivate　healthy　pleasures　and　past　times　

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DISCUSSION　QUESTIONS　

1。　Motivation　and　emotion　are　constructs　that　have　much　in　mon；　though　each　has　significant　
aspects　that　distinguish　it　from　the　other。　Discuss　with　the　class　what　seems　to　be　the　primary　
difference　between　the　two　concepts？　Why　is　it　significant？　
2。　Have　the　class　think　of　times　when　they　felt　strongly　motivated　but　not　“emotional。”　Is　it　also　
possible　to　feel　strong　emotion；　without　simultaneously　feeling　motivated　to　act　in　some　way　on　
those　feelings？　If　either　case　is　possible；　is　something　“missing”　when　motivation　lacks　emotion？　
What　is　missing；　and　does　it　matter？　
3。　Think　about　emotion　in　an　evolutionary　sense。　What　functions　does　it　serve？　What　functions　has　it　
served　in　the　past？　Is　emotion　still　a　necessary　phenomenon　for　us；　living　as　we　do；　in　our　locked　
homes　and　automobiles？　
4。　Living　with　stress　on　a　long…term　basis　is　a　part　of　the　lives　of　many　people；　and　that　stress　can　be　
acute　（Honey；　I　just　wrecked　the　car！）　or　chronic　（if　one　more　fool　cuts　in　front　of　me　on　the　freeway　
。。。　）。　Consider　the　physiological　and　psychological　impacts　of　having　severe；　chronic　respiratory　
allergies；　what　issues　would　this　bring　to　mind　in　terms　of　coping　and　attempting　to　live　an　
unencumbered　lifestyle？　
5。　Discuss　coping　styles　in　terms　of　Type　A；　Type　B；　and　Type　C　personalities。　Which　personality　type　
is　most　likely　to　use　which　coping　style？　Have　students　determine　why　a　particular　personality　
type　responds　with　a　given　coping　style。　
6。　Discuss　learned　helplessness　from　the　perspective　of　controllable　versus　uncontrollable　stressors。　
7。　Can　students　give　any　examples　of　how　one　person’s　eustress　might　be　another　person’s　distress？　
（What　about　the　obvious　examples　of　watching　horror　movies；　riding　on　roller　coasters；　being　in　
certain　occupations；　or　even　studying　for　a　final　exam？）　
8。　Have　the　class　name　some　ways　in　which　they　could　reduce　the　stress　in　their　lives。　As　they　listen　
to　others　name　their　stress…reducing　strategies；　do　they　（or　do　you）　hear　any　that　could　reduce　
yours？　Do　you　also　hear　some　ideas　that　would　only　make　your　stress　worse？　
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SUPPLEMENTAL　LECTURE　MATERIAL　

Theories　of　Emotion　

Emotion；　as　a　concept；　seems　to　imply　that　a　person　is　“changed”　or　“moved”　from　one　state　to　another；　as　
from　happy　to　sad　or　angry。　Emotion　consists　of　several　ponents。　They　are：　

1。　The　affective　ponent　is　observed　in　the　reaction　of　the　body。　Reactions　may　take　the　form　of　
sweating；　trembling；　and　turning　white。　This　ponent　is　a　function　of　the　activity　of　the　
autonomic　nervous　system；　preparing　your　body　for　action；　if　action　bees　necessary。　
2。　The　cognitive　ponent　consists　of　the　thoughts　and　beliefs　that　acpany　any　given　emotion。　
This　ponent　provides　a　label　for　what　your　body　is　expressing。　
3。　The　facial　expression　is　the　look　on　your　face。　
4。　The　reactions　to　the　emotion；　such　as　running　from　a　menacing　bear。　
These　varied　ponents　imply　that　emotion　is　a　multifaceted　construct。　There　are　three　dominant　
traditions　or　perspectives　from　which　to　study　emotion。　They　are；　in　order　of　historical　appearance：　
biological；　learning；　and　cognitive。　

Biological/Psychophysical　Tradition　

This　approach　is　based　on　Darwin’s　theory　of　evolution；　and　proposes　that　the　ways　in　which　organisms　
express　emotion　have　had　survival　value　in　the　past。　This　would　imply　that　dogs　snarl　when　they　feel　
threatened　because　snarling　itself　has　been　interpreted　by　other　dogs　and　animals　as　threatening　behavior。　
Snarling　helped　drive　off　threats　and　avoid　fights。　As　Darwin　proposed；　this　form　of　emotional　response　
has　（or　had）　survival　value。　

Learning　Tradition　

This　approach　is　a　drive　theory　perspective。　Kenneth　Spence　divided　the　study　of　emotion　into　motivational　
events；　and　proposed　two　categories　of　events。　They　are：　

。　Appetitive　states；　such　as　hunger　and　thirst；　involve　situations　that　lead　to　approach　behavior　
。　Aversive　states　involve　situations　that　lead　the　organism　to　withdraw　or　flee　the　situation。　Pain　is　the　
most　well　known　aversive　stimuli；　and　the　most　frequently　studied。　
Spence　argued　that　the　drive　that　activates　aversive　states　was　a　result　of　the　development　of　an　internal；　
emotional　response　in　the　organism；　that　the　organism’s　emotionality　was　aroused　by　an　aversive　stimulus　
（pain；　fear；　and　electric　shock）。　Spence’s　basic　premise　was　that　organisms　learn　from　experience　which　
situations　have　aversive　potential；　and　then　strive　to　avoid　those　situations。　

Cognitive　Tradition　

This　approach　stresses　the　importance　of　cognitive　appraisal　of　a　situation。　Richard　Lazarus　felt　that　bodily　
（affective）　changes　were　not　sufficient　for　the　experience　of　a　true　emotional　feeling；　that　we　must　assess　a　
situation　as　emotion　producing　before　we　can　experience　emotion。　The　first　model　to　posit　this　idea　was　that　
proposed　by　the　Lazarus–Schachter　theory　of　appraisal。　

We　now　have　a　foundation　for　the　study　of　emotion；　so　let　us　discuss　theories　that　have　been　popular　at　
different　times　throughout　the　years。　

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The　James–Lange　Theory　

James　and　Lange　proposed　that　feelings　of　emotion　did　not　occur　immediately　after　the　perception　of　an　
event　in　the　environment；　but　because　of　our　bodily　responses　to　the　event　or　object。　In　a　diagram　form；　the　
chain　of　events　looks　like　this：　

PERCEPTION　T　BODILY　CHANGES　T　EMOTION　T　BEHAVIOR　

As　an　example　of　how　this　might　look　in　real　life；　imagine　meeting　an　angry　bear　in　the　woods：　

SNARLING　BEAR　T　INCREASED　HEART　RATE；　T　FEAR！　T　FIGHT　OR　
BP　&　RESPIRATION　FLIGHT！　

James　and　Lange　felt　that　the　perception　of　a　stimulus；　such　as　a　snarling　bear；　led　to　changes　in　the　body。　
These　changes　are　then　fed　back　to　the　brain；　indicating　a　“changed　state”　and　prompting　a　change　in　the　
subjective　experience　of　emotion。　James　and　Lange　felt　that　the　perception　of　changes　in　bodily　sensations　
led　to　emotional　experience。　James　and　Lange　would　argue　that　you　do　not　run　because　you　are　afraid　of　the　
bear；　but　rather　you　are　afraid　because　you　run。　

The　Cannon–Bard　Theory　

The　James–Lange　model　of　emotional　response　was　popular　for　quite　some　time；　until　W。　B。　Cannon　came　
along　about　1930　and　criticized　the　James–Lange　model　on　different　grounds：　

1。　Cannon　felt　that　bodily　changes　that　were　supposed　to　provide　feedback　to　the　brain　and　thus　
provide　“emotional　quality”　to　experiences　could　be　eliminated　without　disturbing　the　emotions。　
He　proceeded　to　denervate　cats　so　that　no　bodily　change　could　occur。　The　cats　still　displayed　
“normal”　emotion　（fear）　in　the　presence　of　a　barking　dog。　
2。　Cannon　noted　that　bodily　changes　that　occur　during　varied　emotional　states　are　nearly　the　same；　
regardless　of　the　emotion　felt。　For　example；　in　both　fear　and　anger；　heart　rate　and　blood　pressure　
increase；　eyes　dilate；　and　hair　stands　erect。　Similar　changes　are　observed　in　response　to　extreme　
heat　or　cold。　
3。　Cannon　felt　that　changes　occurring　in　the　body；　changes　in　the　autonomic　nervous　system；　were　too　
slow　to　provide　the　experience　of　emotion。　
4。　Cannon　felt　that　if　the　James–Lange　theory　were　correct；　then　exercise；　which　increases　heart　rate　
and　leads　to　other　bodily　changes；　should　produce　an　emotional　response。　
Cannon　believed　emotion　to　be　associated　with　activation　of　the　sympathetic　nervous　system；　which；　among　
other　functions；　prepares　an　organism　for　fight　or　flight　by　increasing　heart　rate；　blood　pressure；　and　other　
bodily　functions。　Cannon　argued　that　control　of　emotion　was　based　in　the　thalamus；　which　receives　
information　from　various　senses　and　that　emotional　response　patterns　were　activated　by　the　thalamus　
when　external　sensory　information　was　received；　via　activation　of　the　sympathetic　nervous　system。　He　felt　

emotion　occurred　at　the　same　time　as　activation　of　the　body。　His　model　looks　like　this：

　PERCEPTION　T　BODILY　CHANGES　&　EMOTION　T　BEHAVIOR　

As　an　example　of　how　this　might　look　in　real　life；　imagine　meeting　an　angry　bear　in　the　woods：

　SNARLING　BEAR　T　INCREASE　HEART　RATE　&　FEAR　T　FIGHT　OR　FLIGHT！　

The　Schachter—Singer　Theory　

The　Cognitive–Physiological　Theory　of　Emotion；　proposed　by　Schachter　and　Singer；　suggests　that　emotional　
experience　involves　both　cognitive　attributions　and　physiological　arousal。　This　theory　assumes　that　both　

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physiological　arousal　and　a　cognitive　label　are　necessary　for　the　full　experience　of　emotion。　If　either　
ponent　is　missing；　the　subjective　state　experienced　would　be　inplete。　In　some　ways；　this　model　
bines　and　modifies　the　James–Lange　and　Cannon–Bard　theories。　Like　James　and　Lange；　this　theory　
proposed　that　bodily　changes　are　a　part　of　the　emotional　experience；　and；　like　Cannon　and　Bard；　it　posits　
that　interpretation　of　the　event　is　important　for　full　experience。　However；　this　model　goes　beyond　previous　
theories　in　the　position　that　both　physiological　and　cognitive　labeling　are　required　for　the　full　experience　of　
emotion。　This　theory　has　been　quite　popular　since　its　introduction　in　1963。　Support　for　the　theory；　however；　
has　been　modest；　it　has　been　criticized　on　both　methodological　and　empirical　grounds。　Attempts　to　replicate　
Schachter’s　work　have　been　unsuccessful。　In　diagram　form；　this　theory　would　look　like　this：　

PERCEPTION　T　BODILY　CHANGES　&　T　EMOTION　T　BEHAVIOR　
COGNITIVE　LABEL　

As　an　example　of　how　this　might　look　in　real　life；　imagine　meeting　an　angry　bear　in　the　woods：　

SNARL