black…and…white thinking； and bifurcation。 This tendency is often described as an effort to
oversimplify reality。 A woman feels that if a person does not give clear evidence of liking her；
then the person must dislike her。 An adolescent feels that thinking about anything related to
sex is bad and tries unsuccessfully to have only pure thoughts。
Incorrect assumptions about what is safe and what is threatening。 The maladjusted person may feel
that it is threatening to express his views or to show her anger。 Taking the initiative to talk
with a person of the opposite sex may be perceived as threatening。 The person could just
walk away； or could say something hurtful。
Maladaptive attitudes toward pleasure and pain。 These are the attitudes that say if an activity is
pleasant； it must be sinful； and if it is unpleasant； it means you have done the right thing。
This is analogous to thinking that a medicine is no good unless it is painful to apply or tastes
bad。 This type of thinking may result from selectively remembering pleasurable behaviors
that were punished and unpleasant activities that were rewarded。 Erikson； who was a
psychodynamic psychologist； suggested that while the superego； or conscience； can be very
powerful； it also has a tendency to be juvenile； simply because it was established in
childhood。 He thought that some people could suffer terrible guilt because of this juvenile
superego’s conviction that pleasurable things are “bad。”
Tyranny of “shoulds。” This is the tendency to dedicate one’s life to self…imposed obligations
and responsibilities； and to feel anxious； depressed； or guilty if a “should” is left undone。 “I
should go to that meeting；” “I should write to Aunt Hattie；” “I should change the sheets on
my bed。” It is conceivable that a person could have more “shoulds” than there are hours in
the day to execute them。 Psychodynamic psychologists would attribute this situation to a
domineering superego。
Biased attributions。 Attributions are an attempt to understand events by proposing a cause for
them。 In the case of the maladjusted person； the primary problem is the causes proposed to
explain personal behavior or events that involve the self。 The bias may be in the direction of
protecting the self； in which case the maladjusted person attributes successes and positive
events to other people or environmental circumstances； and failures and negative events to
his or her own efforts or abilities。 A psychodynamic psychologist might describe this as
overuse of defense mechanisms； like rationalization and projection。 What does a well…
adjusted individual do？ He or she internalizes； or takes credit for success； and externalizes
experiences of failure。 Maladjusted individuals must do the opposite； he or she may go to the
opposite extreme； attributing successes and positive events to others or environmental factors
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and failure and negative events to his or her own lack of initiative or ability。 In one case； the
maladjusted person is protecting a fragile self…esteem； and in the other； the person is
confirming low self…esteem。
Personalization of events。 This is a mild form of delusions of reference； a condition in which
there is a tendency to see personal significance in the behavior of others。 A person goes to a
party at which the host serves Mexican food。 The person does not like Mexican food and
thinks that the host served it to spite him or her。 The professor scolds the class for poor
performance on a test。 A student feels that the message is intended for him or her personally。
You may have noticed that the types of faulty thinking described by cognitive psychologists as
roots of emotional disorders are similar to uncritical； rigid thinking in general。 Faulty thinking
can distort our interpretation of events； and it can cause us to make unfortunate decisions。
Why Does Therapy Sometimes Fail？
Putting the blame on science。
We do not know the causal agent for most mental disorders because mental disorders； unlike
most physical illnesses； have no easily identifiable germ； bacteria； virus； organic damage； or
psychosocial factor that has been associated with the majority of cases。 The medical model
contends that we will eventually identify biological causes for mental disorders。 The psychosocial
model points to life experiences； stress； and sociocultural forces as causes。 Currently； a synthesis
of these two theories prevails； biological and psychosocial forces interact as causal agents。 Mental
disorders seem to be like headaches in that they may result from any of many causes。 Therapists
of different theoretical orientations have their own explanations for mental disorders。
Diagnosis of most mental disorders must be made based on signs and symptoms； what the
mental health professional observes in the patient’s behavior； and the patient’s description of his
plaint。 Symptom patterns are usually not clear…cut or easily associated with a particular
diagnostic category； and mental health professionals do not get diagnostic help from analysis of
blood or urine or X…rays。
Putting the blame on the therapists。
Research suggests that the personality； experience； and talent of the therapist are more important
in determining the success of therapy than the type of therapy utilized。 In other words； the
person…therapist is more important than whether the therapy is psychoanalytic； humanistic；
behavioral； or eclectic。
It is more difficult for therapists to be objective than it is for medical practitioners to be so；
because the therapist cannot entirely avoid intrusions of his or her own values and preferences
into the perception and interpretation of the patient’s behavior and disclosures。 This problem is
accentuated when the therapist and the patient have divergent socioeconomic； cultural； or ethnic
backgrounds； or perhaps are of different genders。
Carl Rogers said that to be effective a therapist must be empathic； able to feel with the client；
warm and accepting； and genuine。 Empathy and warmth cannot be merely a professional facade。
Yet； the important criteria for admission to most graduate and professional schools are
intellectual ability and academic achievement； rather than warmth and genuineness。 There may
well be a gift or a talent that is an important ingredient in therapy that many therapists do not
possess—or that was selected out of postgraduate admissions。
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Putting the blame on the patients。
For convenience； we can put people who undergo psychotherapy into one of two categories。
First； there are those who are in therapy because they were coerced or forced by family； authority
figures； or the courts。 Second； there are those who voluntarily seek therapy because their
abnormal behavior is causing them pain or problems。 It is not difficult to understand why
therapy often fails when patients are coerced or forced； but why does it fail to help those who
actively seek help with the intention of cooperating and doing their share in the therapeutic
process？
Freud thought that neuroses served a purpose for the patient。 The ego uses abnormal thinking
and behavior as a means of protecting itself from impulses of the id and unconscious conflicts。
Behaviorists admit that mental disorders can have advantages。 They can make it possible for
people to avoid unwanted responsibilities； to excuse failure； and to manipulate others。 Therefore；
the willing patient may have a conflict。 In order to be relieved of the pain and misery associated
with the disorder； the advantages gained from it must be sacrificed。 Take the addict as an
example。 The addiction causes problems； and even physical pain； yet the person may feel that life
would be unbearable without the addictive substance。 In the case of anxiety disorders； the
conflict is not so clearly perceived by the patient； who would generally deny getting any rewards
（secondary gains） from holding on to the disorder。
Many disorders develop over a period of years； sometimes beginning in childhood。 Patterns of
abnormal or maladaptive thoughts and behaviors bee an integral part of the personality；
affecting the person’s view of reality and all his or her patterns of thought and behavior。 Freud
believed that restructuring of the personality was a necessity in successful therapy。 This idea was
that once the offending conflict or problem was identified； the person would need to rethink and
reconstruct other aspects of the self that developed； in order to acmodate the abnormal
patterns of thought and behavior。 Most current therapies do not aim at reconstruction of the
personality； but perhaps they should be more mindful of the possibility that you cannot excise an
abnormality without affecting the personality structure from which it is removed。
Consider the example of a hypochondriac who has spent a good part of his life monitoring his
body and looking for pathology to explain every irregularity of function or unfamiliar twitch。 His
illnesses have brought him sympathy and attention； and he has used his poor health to explain to
himself and others why he has not “climbed the ladder of success。” After his life is endangered
by an unnecessary surgery； he goes to a psychotherapist for help。 The issue is； will he be able to
give up his hypochondria and its benefits？ Can he change his perception to see himself as a
normal； healthy person living in a world in which illnesses and the danger of infection can play a
relatively minor role？
It is not easy for people to give up their maladaptive behavior； just as it is not easy for any of us
to break bad habits or improve aspects of our personalities。 The therapist is in the position of
trying to teach old dogs new…or better…tricks。
Prefrontal Lobotomies
The doctor who developed the prefrontal lobotomy was given the Nobel Prize in Medicine。 Ask
students if they have seen movies such as “One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest” and what their
perception is of the procedure。 Do they consider it barbaric； wi