ion； even occasionally from great exertion of the body or mind； in the pleasure of our daily meals； and especially in the pleasure derived from sociability； and from loving our families。〃 But there was to him so much suffering in the world that it was a strong argument against the existence of an intelligent First Cause。 （〃Life and Letters〃 Vol。 I。 page 310。）
It seems to me that Darwin was not so clear on another question； that of the relation between improvement and adaptation。 He wrote to Lyell： 〃When you contrast natural selection and 'improvement；' you seem always to overlook。。。that every step in the natural selection of each species implies improvement in that species IN RELATION TO ITS CONDITION OF LIFE。。。Improvement implies； I suppose； EACH FORM OBTAINING MANY PARTS OR ORGANS； all excellently adapted for their functions。〃 〃All this；〃 he adds； 〃seems to me quite compatible with certain forms fitted for simple conditions； remaining unaltered； or being degraded。〃 （Ibid。 Vol。 II。 page 177。） But the great question is； if the conditions of life will in the long run favour 〃improvement〃 in the sense of differentiation （or harmony of differentiation and integration）。 Many beings are best adapted to their conditions of life if they have few organs and few necessities。 Pessimism would not only be the consequence； if suffering outweighed happiness； but also if the most elementary forms of happiness were predominant； or if there were a tendency to reduce the standard of life to the simplest possible； the contentment of inertia or stable equilibrium。 There are animals which are very highly differentiated and active in their young state； but later lose their complex organisation and concentrate themselves on the one function of nutrition。 In the human world analogies to this sort of adaptation are not wanting。 Young 〃idealists〃 very often end as old 〃Philistines。〃 Adaptation and progress are not the same。
Another question of great importance in respect to human evolution is； whether there will be always a possibility for the existence of an impulse to progress； an impulse to make great claims on life； to be active and to alter the conditions of life instead of adapting to them in a passive manner。 Many people do not develop because they have too few necessities； and because they have no power to imagine other conditions of life than those under which they live。 In his remarks on 〃the pleasure from exertion〃 Darwin has a point of contact with the practical idealism of former timeswith the ideas of Lessing and Goethe； of Condorcet and Fichte。 The continual striving which was the condition of salvation to Faust's soul； is also the condition of salvation to mankind。 There is a holy fire which we ought to keep burning； if adaptation is really to be improvement。 If； as I have tried to show in my 〃Philosophy of Religion〃； the innermost core of all religion is faith in the persistence of value in the world； and if the highest values express themselves in the cry 〃Excelsior！〃 then the capital point is； that this cry should always be heard and followed。 We have here a corollary of the theory of evolution in its application to human life。
Darwin declared himself an agnostic； not only because he could not harmonise the large amount of suffering in the world with the idea of a God as its first cause； but also because he 〃was aware that if we admit a first cause； the mind still craves to know whence it came and how it arose。〃 （〃Life and Letters〃； Vol。 I。 page 306。） He saw； as Kant had seen before him and expressed in his 〃Kritik der Urtheilskraft〃； that we cannot accept either of the only two possibilities which we are able to conceive： chance （or brute force） and design。 Neither mechanism nor teleology can give an absolute answer to ultimate questions。 The universe； and especially the organic life in it； can neither be explained as a mere combination of absolute elements nor as the effect of a constructing thought。 Darwin concluded； as Kant； and before him Spinoza； that the oppositions and distinctions which our experience presents； cannot safely be regarded as valid for existence in itself。 And； with Kant and Fichte； he found his stronghold in the conviction that man has something to do； even if he cannot solve all enigmas。 〃The safest conclusion seems to me that the whole subject is beyond the scope of man's intellect； but man can do his duty。〃 （Ibid。 page 307。）
Is this the last word of human thought？ Does not the possibility； that man can do his duty； suppose that the conditions of life allow of continuous ethical striving； so that there is a certain harmony between cosmic order and human ideals？ Darwin himself has shown how the consciousness of duty can arise as a natural result of evolution。 Moreover there are lines of evolution which have their end in ethical idealism； in a kingdom of values； which must struggle for life as all things in the world must do； but a kingdom which has its firm foundation in reality。
XXIII。 DARWINISM AND SOCIOLOGY。
By C。 BOUGLE。 Professor of Social Philosophy in the University of Toulouse and Deputy… Professor at the Sorbonne； Paris。
How has our conception of social phenomena； and of their history； been affected by Darwin's conception of Nature and the laws of its transformations？ To what extent and in what particular respects have the discoveries and hypotheses of the author of 〃The Origin of Species〃 aided the efforts of those who have sought to construct a science of society？
To such a question it is certainly not easy to give any brief or precise answer。 We find traces of Darwinism almost everywhere。 Sociological systems differing widely from each other have laid claim to its authority； while； on the other hand； its influence has often made itself felt only in combination with other influences。 The Darwinian thread is worked into a hundred patterns along with other threads。
To deal with the problem； we must； it seems； first of all distinguish the more general conclusions in regard to the evolution of living beings； which are the outcome of Darwinism； from the particular explanations it offers of the ways and means by which that evolution is effected。 That is to say； we must； as far as possible； estimate separately the influence of Darwin as an evolutionist and Darwin as a selectionist。
The nineteenth century； said Cournot； has witnessed a mighty effort to 〃reintegrer l'homme dans la nature。〃 From divers quarters there has been a methodical reaction against the persistent dualism of the Cartesian tradition； which was itself the unconscious heir of the Christian tradition。 Even the philosophy of the eighteenth century； materialistic as were for the most part the tendencies of its leaders； seemed to revere man as a being apart； concerning whom laws might be formulated a priori。 To bring him down from his pedestal there was needed the marked predominance of positive researches wherein no account was taken of the 〃pride of man。〃 There can be no doubt that Darwin has done much to familiarise us with this attitude。 Take for instance the first part of 〃The Descent of Man〃： it is an accumulation of typical facts； all tending to diminish the distance between us and our brothers； the lower animals。 One might say that the naturalist had here taken as his motto； 〃Whosoever shall exalt himself shall be abased； and he that shall humble himself shall be exalted。〃 Homologous structures； the survival in man of certain organs of animals； the rudiments in the animal of certain human faculties； a multitude of facts of this sort； led Darwin to the conclusion that there is no ground for supposing that the 〃king of the universe〃 is exempt from universal laws。 Thus belief in the imperium in imperio has been； as it were； whittled away by the progress of the naturalistic spirit； itself continually strengthened by the conquests of the natural sciences。 The tendency may； indeed； drag the social sciences into overstrained analogies； such； for instance； as the assimilation of societies to organisms。 But it will； at least； have had the merit of helping sociology to shake off the pre…conception that the groups formed by men are artificial； and that history is completely at the mercy of chance。 Some years before the appearance of 〃The Origin of Species〃； Auguste Comte had pointed out the importance； as regards the unification of positive knowledge； of the conviction that the social world； the last refuge of spiritualism； is itself subject to determininism。 It cannot be doubted that the movement of thought which Darwin's discoveries promoted contributed to the spread of this conviction； by breaking down the traditional barrier which cut man off from Nature。
But Nature； according to modern naturalists； is no immutable thing： it is rather perpetual movement； continual progression。 Their discoveries batter a breach directly into the Aristotelian notion of species； they refuse to see in the animal world a collection of immutable types； distinct from all eternity； and corresponding； as Cuvier said； to so many particular thoughts of the Creator。 Darwin especially congratulated himself upon having been able to deal this doctrine the coup de grace： immutability is； he says； his chief enemy； and he is concerned to showtherein following up Lyell's workthat everything in the organic world； as in the inorganic； is explained by insensible but incessant transformations。 〃Nature makes no leaps〃〃Nature knows no gaps〃： these two dicta form； as it were； the two landmarks between which Darwin's idea of transformation is worked out。 That is to say； the development of Darwinism is calculated to further the application of the philosophy of Becoming to the study of human institutions。
The progress of the natural sciences thus brings unexpected reinforcements to the revolution which the progress of historical discipline had begun。 The first attempt to constitute an actual science of social phenomena that； namely； of the economistshad resulted in laws which were called natural； and which were believed to be eternal and universal； valid for all times and all places。 But this perpetuality； brother； as Knies said； of the immutability of the old zoology； did not long hold out against the ever