by one； are dissociating into simpler parts。 We are watching the disintegration of the 〃atoms〃 of the chemist； hitherto believed indestructible and eternal； and measuring the liberation of some of the long…suspected store of internal atomic energy。 We have stumbled on the transmutation dreamed by the alchemist； and discovered the process of a veritable evolution of matter。
The transmutation theory of radio…activity was formulated by Rutherford （Rutherford； 〃Radio…activity〃 （2nd edition）； Cambridge； 1905； page 307。） and Soddy in 1903。 By its light； all recent work on the subject has been guided； it has stood the supreme test of a hypothesis； and shown power to suggest new investigations and to co…ordinate and explain them； when carried out。 We have summarised the evidence which led to the conception of the theory； we have now to consider the progress which has been made in tracing the successive disintegration of radio…active atoms。
Soon after the statement of the transmutation theory； a striking verification of one of its consequences appeared。 The measurement of the magnetic and electric deflection of the alpha…rays suggested to Rutherford the idea that the stream of projectiles of which they consisted was a flight of helium atoms。 Ramsay and Soddy； confining a minute bubble of radium emanation in a fine glass tube； were able to watch the development of the helium spectrum as； day by day； the emanation decayed。 By isolating a very narrow pencil of alpha…rays； and watching through a microscope their impact on a fluorescent screen； Rutherford has lately counted the individual alpha…projectiles； and confirmed his original conclusion that their mass corresponded to that of helium atoms and their charge to double that on a univalent atom。 （〃Proc。 Roy。 Soc。〃 A； page 141； 1908。） Still more recently； he has collected the alpha…particles shot through an extremely thin wall of glass； and demonstrated by direct spectroscopic evidence the presence of helium。 （〃Phil。 Mag。〃 February 1909。）
But the most thorough investigation of a radio…active pedigree is found in Rutherford's classical researches on the successive disintegration products of radium； in order to follow the evidence on which his results are founded； we must describe more fully the process of decay of the activity of a simple radio…active substance。 The decay of activity of the body known as uranium…X is shown in a falling curve （Fig。 1。）。 It will be seen that； in each successive 22 days； the activity falls to half the value it possessed at the beginning。
This change in a geometrical progression is characteristic of simple radio… active processes； and can be expressed mathematically by a simple exponential formula。
As we have said above； solid bodies exposed to the emanations of radium or thorium become coated with a radio…active deposit。 The rate of decay of this activity depends on the time of exposure to the emanation； and does not always show the usual simple type of curve。 Thus the activity of a rod exposed to radium emanation for 1 minute decays in accordance with a curve （Fig。 2） which represents the activity as measured by the alpha…rays。 If the electroscope be screened from the alpha…rays； it is found that the activity of the rod in beta… an gamma…rays increases for some 35 minutes and then diminishes （Fig。 3。）。
These complicated relations have been explained satisfactorily and completely by Rutherford on the hypothesis of successive changes of the radio…active matter into one new body after another。 （Rutherford； 〃Radio… activity〃 （2nd edition）； Cambridge； 1905； page 379。） The experimental curve represents the resultant activity of all the matter present at a given moment； and the process of disentangling the component effects consists in finding a number of curves； which express the rise and fall of activity of each kind of matter as it is produced and decays； and； fitted together； give the curve of the experiments。
Other methods of investigation also are open。 They have enabled Rutherford to complete the life…history of radium and its products； and to clear up doubtful points left by the analysis of the curves。 By the removal of the emanation； the activity of radium itself has been shown to consist solely of alpha…rays。 This removal can be effected by passing air through the solution of a radium salt。 The emanation comes away； and the activity of the deposit which it leaves behind decays rapidly to a small fraction of its initial value。 Again； some of the active deposits of the emanation are more volatile than others； and can be separated from them by the agency of heat。
From such evidence Rutherford has traced a long series of disintegration products of radium； all but the first of which exist in much too minute quantities to be detected otherwise than by their radio…activities。 Moreover； two of these products are not themselves appreciably radio… active； though they are born from radio…active parents； and give rise to a series of radio…active descendants。 Their presence is inferred from such evidence as the rise of beta and gamma radio…activity in the solid newly deposited by the emanation； this rise measuring the growth of the first radio…active offspring of one of the non…active bodies。 Some of the radium products give out alpha…rays only； one beta… and gamma…rays； while one yields all three types of radiation。 The pedigree of the radium family may be expressed in the following table； the time noted in the second column being the time required for a given quantity to be half transformed into its next derivative。
Time of half Radio… Properties decay activity
Radium About 2600 years alpha rays Element chemically analogous to barium。 》 Emanation 3。8 days alpha rays Chemically inert gas； condenses at …150 deg C。 》 Radium…A 3 minutes alpha rays Behaves as a solid deposited on surfaces； concentrated on a negative electrode。 》 Radium…B 21 minutes no rays Soluble in strong acids； volatile at a white heat； more volatile than A or C。 》 Radium…C 28 minutes alpha； beta； Soluble in strong acids； less gamma rays volatile than B。 》 Radium…D about 40 years no rays Soluble in strong acids； volatile below 1000 deg C。 》 Radium…E 6 days beta； gamma Non…volatile at 1000 deg C。 rays 》 Radium…F 143 days alpha rays Volatile at 1000 deg C。 Deposited from solution on a bismuth plate。
Of these products； A； B； and C constitute that part of the active deposit of the emanation which suffers rapid decay and nearly disappears in a few hours。 Radium…D； continually producing its short…lived descendants E and F； remains for years on surfaces once exposed to the emanation； and makes delicate radio…active researches impossible in laboratories which have been contaminated by an escape of radium emanation。
A somewhat similar pedigree has been made out in the case of thorium。 Here thorium…X is interposed between thorium and its short…lived emanation； which decays to half its initial quantity in 54 seconds。 Two active deposits； thorium A and B； arise successively from the emanation。 In uranium； we have the one obvious derivative uranium…X； and the question remains whether this one descent can be connected with any other individual or family。 Uranium is long…lived； and emits only alpha…rays。 Uranium…X decays to half value in 22 days； giving out beta… and gamma…rays。 Since our evidence goes to show that radio…activity is generally accompanied by the production of new elements； it is natural to search for the substance of uranium…X in other forms； and perhaps under other names； rather than to surrender immediately our belief in the conservation of matter。
With this idea in mind we see at once the significance of the constitution of uranium minerals。 Formed in the remote antiquity of past geological ages； these minerals must become store…houses of all the products of uranium except those which may have escaped as gases or possibly liquids。 Even gases may be expected to some extent to be retained by occlusion。 Among the contents of uranium minerals； then； we may look for the descendants of the parent uranium。 If the descendants are permanent or more long…lived than uranium； they will accumulate continually。 If they are short…lived； they will accumulate at a steady rate till enough is formed for the quantity disintegrating to be equal to the quantity developed。 A state of mobile equilibrium will then be reached； and the amount of the product will remain constant。 This constant amount of substance will depend only on the amount of uranium which is its source； and； for different minerals； if all the product is retained； the quantity of the product will be proportional to the quantity of uranium。 In a series of analyses of uranium minerals； therefore； we ought to be able to pick out its more short…lived descendants by seeking for instances of such proportionality。
Now radium itself is a constituent of uranium minerals； and two series of experiments by R。J。 Strutt and B。B。 Boltwood have shown that the content of radium； as measured by the radio…activity of the emanation； is directly proportional to the content of uranium。 （Strutt； 〃Proc。 Roy。 Soc。〃 A； February 1905； Boltwood； 〃Phil。 Mag。〃 April； 1905。） In Boltwood's investigation； some twenty minerals； with amounts of uranium varying from that in a specimen of uraninite with 74。65 per cent。； to that in a monazite with 0。30 per cent。； gave a ratio of uranium to radium； constant within about one part in ten。
The conclusion is irresistible that radium is a descendant of uranium； though whether uranium is its parent or a more remote ancestor requires further investigation by the radio…active genealogist。 On the hypot