； perhaps millions of years before the commencement of the history of mankind； that all warm…blooded animals have arisen from one living filament？〃。。。〃This idea of the gradual generation of all things seems to have been as familiar to the ancient philosophers as to the modern ones； and to have given rise to the beautiful hieroglyphic figure of the proton oon； or first great egg； produced by night； that is； whose origin is involved in obscurity； and animated by Eros； that is； by Divine Love； from whence proceeded all things which exist。〃
Lamarck （1744…1829） seems to have become an evolutionist independently of Erasmus Darwin's influence； though the parallelism between them is striking。 He probably owed something to Buffon； but he developed his theory along a different line。 Whatever view be held in regard to that theory there is no doubt that Lamarck was a thorough…going evolutionist。 Professor Haeckel speaks of the 〃Philosophie Zoologique〃 as 〃the first connected and thoroughly logical exposition of the theory of descent。〃 （See Alpheus S。 Packard； 〃Lamarck； the Founder of Evolution； His Life and Work； with Translations of his writings on Organic Evolution〃。 London； 1901。）
Besides the three old masters； as we may call them； Buffon； Erasmus Darwin； and Lamarck； there were other quite convinced pre…Darwinian evolutionists。 The historian of the theory of descent must take account of Treviranus whose 〃Biology or Philosophy of Animate Nature〃 is full of evolutionary suggestions； of Etienne Geoffroy St Hilaire； who in 1830； before the French Academy of Sciences； fought with Cuvier； the fellow…worker of his youth； an intellectual duel on the question of descent； of Goethe； one of the founders of morphology and the greatest poet of Evolutionwho； in his eighty…first year； heard the tidings of Geoffroy St Hilaire's defeat with an interest which transcended the political anxieties of the time； and of many others who had gained with more or less confidence and clearness a new outlook on Nature。 It will be remembered that Darwin refers to thirty…four more or less evolutionist authors in his Historical Sketch； and the list might be added to。 Especially when we come near to 1858 do the numbers increase； and one of the most remarkable； as also most independent champions of the evolution…idea before that date was Herbert Spencer； who not only marshalled the arguments in a very forcible way in 1852； but applied the formula in detail in his 〃Principles of Psychology〃 in 1855。 （See Edward Clodd； 〃Pioneers of Evolution〃； London； page 161； 1897。）
It is right and proper that we should shake ourselves free from all creationist appreciations of Darwin； and that we should recognise the services of pre…Darwinian evolutionists who helped to make the time ripe； yet one cannot help feeling that the citation of them is apt to suggest two fallacies。 It may suggest that Darwin simply entered into the labours of his predecessors； whereas； as a matter of fact； he knew very little about them till after he had been for years at work。 To write； as Samuel Butler did； 〃Buffon planted； Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck watered； but it was Mr Darwin who said 'That fruit is ripe；' and shook it into his lap〃。。。seems to us a quite misleading version of the facts of the case。 The second fallacy which the historical citation is a little apt to suggest is that the filiation of ideas is a simple problem。 On the contrary； the history of an idea； like the pedigree of an organism； is often very intricate； and the evolution of the evolution…idea is bound up with the whole progress of the world。 Thus in order to interpret Darwin's clear formulation of the idea of organic evolution and his convincing presentation of it； we have to do more than go back to his immediate predecessors； such as Buffon； Erasmus Darwin； and Lamarck； we have to inquire into the acceptance of evolutionary conceptions in regard to other orders of facts； such as the earth and the solar system （See Chapter IX。 〃The Genetic View of Nature〃 in J。T。 Merz's 〃History of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century〃； Vol。 2； Edinburgh and London； 1903。）； we have to realise how the growing success of scientific interpretation along other lines gave confidence to those who refused to admit that there was any domain from which science could be excluded as a trespasser； we have to take account of the development of philosophical thought； and even of theological and religious movements； we should also； if we are wise enough； consider social changes。 In short； we must abandon the idea that we can understand the history of any science as such； without reference to contemporary evolution in other departments of activity。
While there were many evolutionists before Darwin； few of them were expert naturalists and few were known outside a small circle； what was of much more importance was that the genetic view of nature was insinuating itself in regard to other than biological orders of facts； here a little and there a little； and that the scientific spirit had ripened since the days when Cuvier laughed Lamarck out of court。 How was it that Darwin succeeded where others had failed？ Because； in the first place； he had clear visions〃pensees de la jeunesse； executees par l'age mur〃which a University curriculum had not made impossible； which the 〃Beagle〃 voyage made vivid； which an unrivalled British doggedness made realvisions of the web of life； of the fountain of change within the organism； of the struggle for existence and its winnowing； and of the spreading genealogical tree。 Because； in the second place； he put so much grit into the verification of his visions； putting them to the proof in an argument which is of its kinddirect demonstration being out of the questionquite unequalled。 Because； in the third place； he broke down the opposition which the most scientific had felt to the seductive modal formula of evolution by bringing forward a more plausible theory of the process than had been previously suggested。 Nor can one forget； since questions of this magnitude are human and not merely academic； that he wrote so that all men could understand。
AS REGARDS THE FACTORS OF EVOLUTION。
It is admitted by all who are acquainted with the history of biology that the general idea of organic evolution as expressed in the Doctrine of Descent was quite familiar to Darwin's grandfather； and to others before and after him； as we have briefly indicated。 It must also be admitted that some of these pioneers of evolutionism did more than apply the evolution… idea as a modal formula of becoming； they began to inquire into the factors in the process。 Thus there were pre…Darwinian theories of evolution； and to these we must now briefly refer。 （See Prof。 W。A。 Locy's 〃Biology and its Makers〃。 New York； 1908。 Part II。 〃The Doctrine of Organic Evolution〃。
In all biological thinking we have to work with the categories Organism FunctionEnvironment； and theories of evolution may be classified in relation to these。 To some it has always seemed that the fundamental fact is the living organism；a creative agent； a striving will； a changeful Proteus； selecting its environment； adjusting itself to it； self… differentiating and self…adaptive。 The necessity of recognising the importance of the organism is admitted by all Darwinians who start with inborn variations； but it is open to question whether the whole truth of what we might call the Goethian position is exhausted in the postulate of inherent variability。
To others it has always seemed that the emphasis should be laid on Function；on use and disuse； on doing and not doing。 Practice makes perfect； c'est a force de forger qu'on devient forgeron。 This is one of the fundamental ideas of Lamarckism； to some extent it met with Darwin's approval； and it finds many supporters to…day。 One of the ablest of these Mr Francis Darwinhas recently given strong reasons for combining a modernised Lamarckism with what we usually regard as sound Darwinism。 （Presidential Address to the British Association meeting at Dublin in 1908。）
To others it has always seemed that the emphasis should be laid on the Environment； which wakes the organism to action； prompts it to change； makes dints upon it； moulds it； prunes it； and finally； perhaps； kills it。 It is again impossible to doubt that there is truth in this view； for even if environmentally induced 〃modifications〃 be not transmissible； environmentally induced 〃variations〃 are； and even if the direct influence of the environment be less important than many enthusiastic supporters of this viewmay we call them Buffoniansthink； there remains the indirect influence which Darwinians in part rely on；the eliminative process。 Even if the extreme view be held that the only form of discriminate elimination that counts is inter…organismal competition； this might be included under the rubric of the animate environment。
In many passages Buffon （See in particular Samuel Butler； 〃Evolution Old and New〃； London； 1879； J。L。 de Lanessan； 〃Buffon et Darwin〃； 〃Revue Scientifique〃； XLIII。 pages 385…391； 425…432； 1889。） definitely suggested that environmental influencesespecially of climate and foodwere directly productive of changes in organisms； but he did not discuss the question of the transmissibility of the modifications so induced； and it is difficult to gather from his inconsistent writings what extent of transformation he really believed in。 Prof。 Osborn says of Buffon： 〃The struggle for existence； the elimination of the least…perfected species； the contest between the fecundity of certain species and their constant destruction； are all clearly expressed in various passages。〃 He quotes two of these （op。 cit。 page 136。）：
〃Le cours ordinaire de la nature vivante； est en general toujours constant； toujours le meme； son mouvement； toujours regulier； roule sur deux points inebranlables： l'un； la fecondite sans bornes donnee a toutes les especes； l'autre； les obstacles sans nombre qui reduisent cette fecondite a une mesure determinee et ne laissent en tout temps qu'a peu pres la meme quantite d'individus de chaque espece〃。。。〃Les especes les moins parfaites； les plus delicates； les plus pesantes； les moins agissantes； les moins armees； etc。； ont deja dispa