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reckoned　its　price　in　Edinburgh　and　its　neighbourhood。　At　a　few

miles　distance　it　falls　to　eightpence；　the　usual　price　of　common

labour　through　the　greater　part　of　the　low　country　of　Scotland；

where　it　varies　a　good　deal　less　than　in　England。　Such　a

difference　of　prices；　which　it　seems　is　not　always　sufficient　to

transport　a　man　from　one　parish　to　another；　would　necessarily

occasion　so　great　a　transportation　of　the　most　bulky　commodities；

not　only　from　one　parish　to　another；　but　from　one　end　of　the

kingdom；　almost　from　one　end　of　the　world　to　the　other；　as　would

soon　reduce　them　more　nearly　to　a　level。　After　all　that　has　been

said　of　the　levity　and　inconstancy　of　human　nature；　it　appears

evidently　from　experience　that　a　man　is　of　all　sorts　of　luggage

the　most　difficult　to　be　transported。　If　the　labouring　poor；

therefore；　can　maintain　their　families　in　those　parts　of　the

kingdom　where　the　price　of　labour　is　lowest；　they　must　be　in

affluence　where　it　is　highest。

　　　　　Fourthly；　the　variations　in　the　price　of　labour　not　only　do

not　correspond　either　in　place　or　time　with　those　in　the　price　of

provisions；　but　they　are　frequently　quite　opposite。

　　　　　Grain；　the　food　of　the　common　people；　is　dearer　in　Scotland

than　in　England；　whence　Scotland　receives　almost　every　year　very

large　supplies。　But　English　corn　must　be　sold　dearer　in　Scotland；

the　country　to　which　it　is　brought；　than　in　England；　the　country

from　which　it　comes；　and　in　proportion　to　its　quality　it　cannot

be　sold　dearer　in　Scotland　than　the　Scotch　corn　that　comes　to　the

same　market　in　competition　with　it。　The　quality　of　grain　depends

chiefly　upon　the　quantity　of　flour　or　meal　which　it　yields　at　the

mill；　and　in　this　respect　English　grain　is　so　much　superior　to

the　Scotch　that；　though　often　dearer　in　appearance；　or　in

proportion　to　the　measure　of　its　bulk；　it　is　generally　cheaper　in

reality；　or　in　proportion　to　its　quality；　or　even　to　the　measure

of　its　weight。　The　price　of　labour；　on　the　contrary；　is　dearer　in

England　than　in　Scotland。　If　the　labouring　poor；　therefore；　can

maintain　their　families　in　the　one　part　of　the　United　Kingdom；

they　must　be　in　affluence　in　the　other。　Oatmeal　indeed　supplies

the　common　people　in　Scotland　with　the　greatest　and　the　best　part

of　their　food；　which　is　in　general　much　inferior　to　that　of　their

neighbours　of　the　same　rank　in　England。　This　difference；　however；

in　the　mode　of　their　subsistence　is　not　the　cause；　but　the　effect

of　the　difference　in　their　wages；　though；　by　a　strange

misapprehension；　I　have　frequently　heard　it　represented　as　the

cause。　It　is　not　because　one　man　keeps　a　coach　while　his

neighbour　walks　afoot　that　the　one　is　rich　and　the　other　poor；

but　because　the　one　is　rich　he　keeps　a　coach；　and　because　the

other　is　poor　he　walks　afoot。

　　　　　During　the　course　of　the　last　century；　taking　one　year　with

another；　grain　was　dearer　in　both　parts　of　the　United　Kingdom

than　during　that　of　the　present。　This　is　a　matter　of　fact　which

cannot　now　admit　of　any　reasonable　doubt；　and　the　proof　of　it　is；

if　possible；　still　more　decisive　with　regard　to　Scotland　than

with　regard　to　England。　It　is　in　Scotland　supported　by　the

evidence　of　the　public　fiars；　annual　valuations　made　upon　oath；

according　to　the　actual　state　of　the　markets；　of　all　the

different　sorts　of　grain　in　every　different　county　of　Scotland。

If　such　direct　proof　could　require　any　collateral　evidence　to

confirm　it；　I　would　observe　that　this　has　likewise　been　the　case

in　France；　and　probably　in　most　other　parts　of　Europe。　With

regard　to　France　there　is　the　clearest　proof。　But　though　it　is

certain　that　in　both　parts　of　the　United　Kingdom　grain　was

somewhat　dearer　in　the　last　century　than　in　the　present；　it　is

equally　certain　that　labour　was　much　cheaper。　If　the　labouring

poor；　therefore；　could　bring　up　their　families　then；　they　must　be

much　more　at　their　ease　now。　In　the　last　century；　the　most　usual

day…wages　of　common　labour　through　the　greater　part　of　Scotland

were　sixpence　in　summer　and　fivepence　in　winter。　Three　shillings

a　week；　the　same　price　very　nearly；　still　continues　to　be　paid　in

some　parts　of　the　Highlands　and　Western　Islands。　Through　the

greater　part　of　the　low　country　the　most　usual　wages　of　common

labour　are　now　eightpence　a　day；　tenpence；　sometimes　a　shilling

about　Edinburgh；　in　the　counties　which　border　upon　England；

probably　on　account　of　that　neighbourhood；　and　in　a　few　other

places　where　there　has　lately　been　a　considerable　rise　in　the

demand　for　labour；　about　Glasgow；　Carron；　Ayrshire；　etc。　In

England　the　improvements　of　agriculture；　manufactures；　and

commerce　began　much　earlier　than　in　Scotland。　The　demand　for

labour；　and　consequently　its　price；　must　necessarily　have

increased　with　those　improvements。　In　the　last　century；

accordingly；　as　well　as　in　the　present；　the　wages　of　labour　were

higher　in　England　than　in　Scotland。　They　have　risen；　too；

considerably　since　that　time；　though；　on　account　of　the　greater

variety　of　wages　paid　there　in　different　places；　it　is　more

difficult　to　ascertain　how　much。　In　1614；　the　pay　of　a　foot

soldier　was　the　same　as　in　the　present　times；　eightpence　a　day。

When　it　was　first　established　it　would　naturally　be　regulated　by

the　usual　wages　of　common　labourers；　the　rank　of　people　from

which　foot　soldiers　are　commonly　drawn。　Lord　Chief　Justice　Hales；

who　wrote　in　the　time　of　Charles　II；　computes　the　necessary

expense　of　a　labourer's　family；　consisting　of　six　persons；　the

father　and　mother；　two　children　able　to　do　something；　and　two　not

able；　at　ten　shillings　a　week；　or　twenty…six　pounds　a　year。　If

they　cannot　earn　this　by　their　labour；　they　must　make　it　up；　he

supposes；　either　by　begging　or　stealing。　He　appears　to　have

inquired　very　carefully　into　this　subject。　In　1688；　Mr。　Gregory

King；　whose　skill　in　political　arithmetic　is　so　much　extolled　by

Doctor　Davenant；　computed　the　ordinary　income　of　labourers　and

out…servants　to　be　fifteen　pounds　a　year　to　a　family；　which　he

supposed　to　consist；　one　with　another；　of　three　and　a　half

persons。　His　calculation；　therefore；　though　different　in

appearance；　corresponds　very　nearly　at　bottom　with　that　of　Judge

Hales。　Both　suppose　the　weekly　expense　of　such　families　to　be

about　twenty　pence　a　head。　Both　the　pecuniary　income　and　expense

of　such　families　have　increased　considerably　since　that　time

through　the　greater　part　of　the　kingdom；　in　some　places　more；　and

in　some　less；　though　perhaps　scarce　anywhere　so　much　as　some

exaggerated　accounts　of　the　present　wages　of　labour　have　lately

represented　them　to　the　public。　The　price　of　labour；　it　must　be

observed；　cannot　be　ascertained　very　accurately　anywhere；

different　prices　being　often　paid　at　the　same　place　and　for　the

same　sort　of　labour；　not　only　according　to　the　different

abilities　of　the　workmen；　but　according　to　the　easiness　or

hardness　of　the　masters。　Where　wages　are　not　regulated　by　law；

all　that　we　can　pretend　to　determine　is　what　are　the　most　usual；

and　experience　seems　to　show　that　law　can　never　regulate　them

properly；　though　it　has　often　pretended　to　do　so。

　　　　　The　real　recompense　of　labour；　the　real　quantity　of　the

necessaries　and　conveniences　of　life　which　it　can　procure　to　the

labourer；　has；　during　the　course　of　the　present　century；

increased　perhaps　in　a　still　greater　proportion　than　its　money

price。　Not　only　grain　has　become　somewhat　cheaper；　but　many　other

things　from　which　the　industrious　poor　derive　an　agreeable　and

wholesome　variety　of　food　have　become　a　great　deal　cheaper。

Potatoes；　for　example；　do　not　at　present；　through　the　greater

part　of　the　kingdom；　cost　half　the　price　which　they　used　to　do

thirty　or　forty　years　ago。　The　same　thing　may　be　said　of　turnips；

carrots；　cabbages；　things　which　were　formerly　never　raised　but　by

the　spade；　but　which　are　now　commonly　raised　by　the　plough。　All

sort　of　garden　stuff；　too；　has　become　cheaper。　The　greater　part

of　the　apples　and　even　of　the　onions　consumed　in　Great　Britain

were　in　the　last　century　imported　from　Flanders。　The　great

improvements　in　the　coarser　manufactures　of　both　linen　and

woollen　cloth　furnish　the　labourers　with　cheaper　and　better

clothing；　and　those　in　the　manufactures　of　the　coarser　metals；

with　cheaper　and　better　instruments　of　trade；　as　well　as　with

many　agreeable　and　convenient　pieces　of　household　furniture。

Soap；　salt；　candles；　leather；　and　fermented　liquors　have；　indeed；

become　a　good　deal　dearer；　chiefly　from　the　taxes　which　have　been

laid　upon　them。　The　quantity　of　these；　however；　which　the

labouring　poor　are　under　any　necessity　of　consuming；　is　so　very

small；　that　the　increase　in　their　price　does　not　compensate　the

diminution　in　that　of　so　many　other　things。　The　common　complaint

that　luxury　extends　itself　even　to　the　lowest　ranks　of　the

people；　and　that　the　labouring　poor　will　not　now　be　contented

with　the　same　food；　clothing；　and　lodging　which　satisfied　them　in

former　times；　may　convince　us　that　it　is　not　the　money　price　of

labour　only；　but　its　real　recompense；　which　has　augmented。

　　　　　Is　this　improvement　in　the　circumstances　of　the　lower　ranks

of　the　people　to　be　regarded　as　an　advantage　or　as　an

inconveniency　to　the　society？　The　answer　seems　at　first　sight

abundantly　plain。　Servants；　labourers；　and　workmen　of　different

kinds；　make　up　the　far　greater　part　of　every　great　political

society。　But　what　improves　the　circumstances　of　the　greater　part

can　never　be　regarded　as　an　inconveniency　to　the　whole。　No

society　can　surely　be　flourishing　and　happy；　of　which　the　far

greater　part　of　the　members　are　poor　and　miserable。　It　is　but

equity；　besides；　that　they　who　feed；　clothe；　and　lodge　the　whole

body　of　the　people；　should　have　such　a　share　of　the　produce　of

their　own　labour　as　to　be　themselves　tolerably　well　fed；　clothed；

and　lodged。

　　　　　Poverty；　though　it　no　doubt　discourages；　does　not　always

prevent　marriage。　It　seems　eve