cultivated land。
In some parts of Lancashire it is pretended； I have been
told； that bread of oatmeal is a heartier food for labouring
people than wheaten bread； and I have frequently heard the same
doctrine held in Scotland。 I am； however； somewhat doubtful of
the truth of it。 The common people in Scotland； who are fed with
oatmeal； are in general neither so strong； nor so handsome as the
same rank of people in England who are fed with wheaten bread。
They neither work so well； nor look so well； and as there is not
the same difference between the people of fashion in the two
countries； experience would seem to show that the food of the
common people in Scotland is not so suitable to the human
constitution as that of their neighbours of the same rank in
England。 But it seems to be otherwise with potatoes。 The
chairmen； porters； and coalheavers in London； and those
unfortunate women who live by prostitution； the strongest men and
the most beautiful women perhaps in the British dominions； are
said to be the greater part of them from the lowest rank of
people in Ireland； who are generally fed with this root。 No food
can afford a more decisive proof of its nourishing quality； or of
its being peculiarly suitable to the health of the human
constitution。
It is difficult to preserve potatoes through the year； and
impossible to store them like corn； for two or three years
together。 The fear of not being able to sell them before they rot
discourages their cultivation； and is； perhaps； the chief
obstacle to their ever becoming in any great country； like bread；
the principal vegetable food of all the different ranks of the
people。
PART 2
Of the Produce of Land which sometimes does；
and sometimes does not； afford Rent
HUMAN food seems to be the only produce of land which always
and necessarily affords some rent to the landlord。 Other sorts of
produce sometimes may and sometimes may not； according to
different circumstances。
After food； clothing and lodging are the two great wants of
mankind。
Land in its original rude state can afford the materials of
clothing and lodging to a much greater number of people than it
can feed。 In its improved state it can sometimes feed a greater
number of people than it can supply with those materials； at
least in the way in which they require them； and are willing to
pay for them。 In the one state； therefore； there is always a
superabundance of those materials； which are frequently； upon
that account； of little or no value。 In the other there is often
a scarcity； which necessarily augments their value。 In the one
state a great part of them is thrown away as useless； and the
price of what is used is considered as equal only to the labour
and expense of fitting it for use； and can； therefore； afford no
rent to the landlord。 In the other they are all made use of； and
there is frequently a demand for more than can be had。 Somebody
is always willing to give more for every part of them than what
is sufficient to pay the expense of bringing them to market。
Their price； therefore； can always afford some rent to the
landlord。
The skins of the larger animals were the original materials
of clothing。 Among nations of hunters and shepherds； therefore；
whose food consists chiefly in the flesh of those animals； every
man； by providing himself with food； provides himself with the
materials of more clothing than he can wear。 If there was no
foreign commerce； the greater part of them would be thrown away
as things of no value。 This was probably the case among the
hunting nations of North America before their country was
discovered by the Europeans； with whom they now exchange their
surplus peltry for blankets； fire…arms； and brandy； which gives
it some value。 In the present commercial state of the known
world； the most barbarous nations； I believe； among whom land
property is established； have some foreign commerce of this kind；
and find among their wealthier neighbours such a demand for all
the materials of clothing which their land produces； and which
can neither be wrought up nor consumed at home； as raises their
price above what it costs to send them to those wealthier
neighbours。 It affords； therefore； some rent to the landlord。
When the greater part of the highland cattle were consumed on
their own hills； the exportation of their hides made the most
considerable article of the commerce of that country； and what
they were exchanged for afforded some addition to the rent of the
highland estates。 The wool of England； which in old times could
neither be consumed nor wrought up at home； found a market in the
then wealthier and more industrious country of Flanders； and its
price afforded something to the rent of the land which produced
it。 In countries not better cultivated than England was then； or
than the highlands of Scotland are now； and which had no foreign
commerce； the materials of clothing would evidently be so
superabundant that a great part of them would be thrown away as
useless； and no part could afford any rent to the landlord。
The materials of lodging cannot always be transported to so
great a distance as those of clothing； and do not so readily
become an object of foreign commerce。 When they are superabundant
in the country which produces them； it frequently happens； even
in the present commercial state of the world； that they are of no
value to the landlord。 A good stone quarry in the neighbourhood
of London would afford a considerable rent。 In many parts of
Scotland and Wales it affords none。 Barren timber for building is
of great value in a populous and well…cultivated country； and the
land which produces it affords a considerable rent。 But in many
parts of North America the landlord would be much obliged to
anybody who would carry away the greater part of his large trees。
In some parts of the highlands of Scotland the bark is the only
part of the wood which； for want of roads and water…carriage； can
be sent to market。 The timber is left to rot upon the ground。
When the materials of lodging are so superabundant； the part made
use of is worth only the labour and expense of fitting it for
that use。 It affords no rent to the landlord； who generally
grants the use of it to whoever takes the trouble of asking it。
The demand of wealthier nations； however； sometimes enables him
to get a rent for it。 The paving of the streets of London has
enabled the owners of some barren rocks on the coast of Scotland
to draw a rent from what never afforded any before。 The woods of
Norway and of the coasts of the Baltic find a market in many
parts of Great Britain which they could not find at home； and
thereby afford some rent to their proprietors。
Countries are populous not in proportion to the number of
people whom their produce can clothe and lodge； but in proportion
to that of those whom it can feed。 When food is provided； it is
easy to find the necessary clothing and lodging。 But though these
are at hand； it may often be difficult to find food。 In some
parts even of the British dominions what is called a house may be
built by one day's labour of one man。 The simplest species of
clothing； the skins of animals； require somewhat more labour to
dress and prepare them for use。 They do not； however； require a
great deal。 Among savage and barbarous nations； a hundredth or
little more than a hundredth part of the labour of the whole year
will be sufficient to provide them with such clothing and lodging
as satisfy the greater part of the people。 All the other
ninety…nine parts are frequently no more than enough to provide
them with food。
But when by the improvement and cultivation of land the
labour of one family can provide food for two； the labour of half
the society becomes sufficient to provide food for the whole。 The
other half； therefore； or at least the greater part of them； can
be employed in providing other things； or in satisfying the other
wants and fancies of mankind。 Clothing and lodging； household
furniture； and what is called Equipage； are the principal objects
of the greater part of those wants and fancies。 The rich man
consumes no more food than his poor neighbour。 In quality it may
be very different； and to select and prepare it may require more
labour and art； but in quantity it is very nearly the same。 But
compare the spacious palace and great wardrobe of the one with
the hovel and the few rags of the other； and you will be sensible
that the difference between their clothing； lodging； and
household furniture is almost as great in quantity as it is in
quality。 The desire of food is limited in every man by the narrow
capacity of the human stomach； but the desire of the conveniences
and ornaments of building； dress； equipage； and household
furniture； seems to have no limit or certain boundary。 Those；
therefore； who have the command of more food than they themselves
can consume； are always willing to exchange the surplus； or； what
is the same thing； the price of it； for gratifications of this
other kind。 What is over and above satisfying the limited desire
is given for the amusement of those desires which cannot be
satisfied； but seem to be altogether endless。 The poor； in order
to obtain food； exert themselves to gratify those fancies of the
rich； and to obtain it more certainly they vie with one another
in the cheapness and perfection of their work。 The number of
workmen increases with the increasing quantity of food； or with
the growing improvement and cultivation of the lands； and as the
nature of their business admits of the utmost subdivisions of
labour； the quantity of materials which they can work up
increases in a much greater proportion than their numbers。 Hence
arises a demand for every sort of material which human invention
can employ； either u