and yet retaining from the period of almost unlimited licence a
sort of family communism which appears in the relations between
fathers and daughters…in…law。
No trace of this either limited or unlimited promiscuousness
is to be found among the Polians； who according to our old
Chronicler； 〃conducted themselves with much reserve〃 towards
daughters…in…law； and sisters…in…law； towards mothers and
fathers； towards fathers…in…law and brothers…in…law。 They seem to
have been an exogamous tribe like the Radimich； Viatich and
Sever； their wives being brought to them from outside their own
gens。 Unlike the tribes just mentioned they did not； however；
procure them by capture。 It was not the custom for the
bridegrooms to go in search of their wives； they received them
from the hands of the parents of the women； and they then paid
the sum of money previously agreed upon。 This means that their
mode of constituting marriage was by buying their wives。 The
words of the Chronicler concerning these payments is far from
being clear； and Russian scholars have tried to interpret them in
the sense of 〃dower〃 brought by the relatives of the wife。 But it
has been recently proved that no mention of 〃dower〃 is to be
found in Russian charters before the fifteenth century； and that
the word veno used in mediaeval Russian to designate the payment
made on marriage； has no other meaning than that of pretium
nuptiale； or payment made by the bridegroom to the family of the
bride。（2*） The words of Tacitus concerning the dos paid amongst
the German tribes by the future husband to his wife's father give
precisely the meaning of the old Russian veno； and throw a light
on the sort of payment which the chronicle of Nestor had in view；
when speaking of the matrimonial customs of the Polians。
The testimony of our oldest Chronicle concerning the
different forms of matrimony among the eastern Slavs deserves our
closest attention； because it is； in all points； confirmed by the
study of the rest of our old written literature； of our epic
poems； of our wedding…songs； and of the matrimonial usages and
customs still or lately in existence in certain remote districts
of Russia。 The Drevlians are not the only Slavonic tribe to which
the mediaeval chronicles ascribe a low state of morality。 The
same is asserted of the old Bohemians or Czechs in the account
given of their manners and customs by Cosmas of Prague； a Latin
annalist of the eleventh century； who says： Connubia erant illis
communia。 Nam more pecudum singulas ad noctes novos probant
hymenaeos； et surgente aurora。。。。 ferrea amoris rumpunt vincula。〃
This means： 〃They practised communal marriage。 For； like animals；
they contracted each night a fresh marriage； and as soon as the
dawn appeared they broke the iron bonds of love。〃
This statement is directly confirmed by that of another
medieval author； the unknown biographer of St。 Adalbert。 This
writer ascribes the animosity of the Bohemian people towards the
saint to the fact of his strong opposition to the shameful
promiscuity which in his time prevailed in Bohemia。 It is
confirmed； also； by the monk of the Russian Abbey of Eleasar；
known by the name of Pamphil； who lived in the sixteenth century。
Both speak of the existence of certain yearly festivals at which
great licence prevailed。 According to the last…named author； such
meetings were regularly held on the borders of the State of
Novgorod on the banks of rivers； resembling； in that particular；
the annual festivals mentioned by Nestor。 Not later than the
beginning of the sixteenth century； they were complained of by
the clergy of the State of Pscov。 It was at that time that
Pamphil drew up his letter to the Governor of the State；
admonishing him to put an end to these annual gatherings； since
their only result was the corruption of the young women and
girls。 According to the author just cited； the meetings took
place； as a rule； the day before the festival of St。 John the
Baptist； which； in pagan times； was that of a divinity known by
the name of Jarilo； corresponding to the Priapus of the Greeks。
Half a century later the new ecclesiastical code； compiled by an
assembly of divines convened in Moscow by the Czar Ivan the
Terrible； took effectual measures for abolishing every vestige of
paganism； amongst them； the yearly festivals held on Christmas
Day； on the day of the baptism of our Lord； and on St。 John the
Baptist； commonly called Midsummer Day。 A general feature of all
these festivals； according to the code； was the prevalence of the
promiscuous intercourse of the sexes。 How far the clergy
succeeded in suppressing these yearly meetings； which had been
regularly held for centuries before on the banks of rivers； we
cannot precisely say； although the fact of their occasional
occurrence； even in modern times； does not tend to prove their
complete abolition。 More than once have I had an opportunity of
being present at these nightly meetings； held at the end of June；
in commemoration of a heathen divinity。 They usually take place
close to a river or pond； large fires are lighted； and over them
young couples； bachelors and unmarried girls； jump barefoot。 I
have never found any trace of licentiousness； but there is no
doubt that cases of licence do occur； though seldom in our time。
That a few centuries ago they were very frequent has been lately
proved by some curious documents preserved in the archives of
some of the provincial ecclesiastical councils； particularly in
those existing in the Government of Kharkov。 According to these
documents； the local clergy were engaged in constant warfare with
the shameful licentiousness which prevailed at the evening
assembles of the peasants； and more than once the clergy
succeeded in inducing the authorities of the village to dissolve
the assemblies by force。 The priests were often wounded； and
obliged to seek refuge in the houses of the village elders from
the stones with which they were pelted。 These evening assemblies
are known to the people of Great Russia under the name of
Posidelki； and to the Little Russians by that of Vechernitzi。
The licentiousness which formed the characteristic feature of
these meetings throws light on the motives which induce the
peasants of certain Great Russian communes to attach but small
importance to virginity。 Russian ethnographers have not
infrequently mentioned the fact of young men living openly with
unmarried women； and； even in case of marriage； of giving
preference to those who were known to have already been mothers。
However peculiar all these facts may seem； they are very
often met with among people of quite a distinct race。 The
Allemanic populations of the Grisons； no longer ago than the
sixteenth century； held regular meetings which were not less
shameful than those of the Cossacks。 The Kilbenen were abolished；
by law （3*） but another custom； in direct antagonism to morality；
continued to exist all over the northern cantons of Switzerland
and in the southern provinces of Wurtemberg and of Baden。 I mean
the custom known under the name of Kirchgang or Dorfgehen； which；
according to the popular songs； consisted in nothing else than
the right of a bachelor to become the lover of some young girl；
and that quite openly； and with the implied consent of the
parents of his sweetheart。 May I also mention a similar custom
amongst the Welsh； known as 〃bundling〃？ I am not well enough
informed as to the character of this custom to insist on its
resemblance to those already mentioned。 The little I have said on
the German survivals of early licence may suffice to establish
this general conclusion： that the comparative immorality of
Russian peasants has no other cause than the survival amongst
them of numerous vestiges of the early forms of marriage。
Another feature of the matriarchal family； the lack of any
prohibition as to marriages between persons who are sprung from
the same father or grandfather； is also mentioned more than once
by early Slavonic writers。 Such marriages were not prohibited by
custom among the old Bohemians or Czechs。 〃Populus miscebatur cum
cognatis；〃 says the biographer of St。 Adalbert。 They are also
frequently mentioned in the epic poems of our peasants； the
so…called bilini； of which the late W。R。S。 Ralston has given to
English readers an accurate and profound analysis。 I will quote
certain passages from these poems to give you the facts on which
my theory is based。
One of the most celebrated heroes of our popular ballads；
Ilia Mourometz。 encounters one day a freebooter named Nightingale
（Solovei Razboinik）。 〃Why；〃 asks the hero； 〃do all thy children
look alike？〃 Nightingale gives the following answer： 〃Because；
when my son is grown up； I marry him to my daughter； and when my
daughter is old enough； I give her my son for a husband； and I do
so in order that my race may not die out。〃 Another popular
ballad； representing the evil customs of former days； describes
them in the following manner：
Brother made war upon brother；
Brother took sister to wife。
Endogamous marriages still occur in a few very remote parts
of Russia。 Such is the case in certain villages in the district
of Onega； and especially in that of Liamika； where the peasants
do their best to infringe the canonical prescriptions which
disallow marriage between blood relations to the fourth degree
inclusively。 The same has also been noticed in certain parts of
the Government of Archangel； quite on the shores of the White
Sea； where the peasants are in the habit of saying that marriages
between blood relations will be blessed with a more rapid
increase of 〃cattle〃 … the word 〃cattle〃 standing in this case
for children。 In some provinces of Siberia and in the district of
Vetlouga； which belongs to the Government of Nijni Novgorod；
endogamous marriages； though contrary to the prevailing custom
are looked upon with a favourable eye。 （4*）
Another fact； which deserves the attention of all partisans
of the theory of the matriarchate； first promulgated by McLennan；
is； the large independence enjoyed by the Slavonic women of old
days。 Let me first quote the words of Cosmas of Prague；