full of fanciful ideas； Van Helmont had the experimental spirit and was the first chemist to discover the diversity of gases。 Like his teacher； he was in revolt against the faculty； and he has bitter things to say of physicians。 He got into trouble with the Church about the magnetic cure of wounds； as no fewer than twenty…seven propositions incompatible with the Catholic faith were found in his pamphlet （Ferguson）。 The Philosophus per ignem； Toparcha in Merode； Royenborch； as he is styled in certain of his writings； is not an easy man to tackle。 I show the title…page of the 〃Ortus Medicinae；〃 the collection of his works by his son。 As with the pages of Paracelsus； there are many gems to be dug out。 The counterblast against bleeding was a useful protest； and to deny in toto its utility in fever required courage a quality never lacking in the Father of Modern Chemistry； as he has been called。
A man of a very different type； a learned academic； a professor of European renown； was Daniel Sennert of Wittenberg； the first to introduce the systematic teaching of chemistry into the curriculum； and who tried to harmonize the Galenists and Paracelsians。 Franciscus Sylvius； a disciple of Van Helmont； established the first chemical laboratory in Europe at Leyden； and to him is due the introduction of modern clinical teaching。 In 1664 he writes： 〃I have led my pupils by the hand to medical practice； using a method unknown at Leyden； or perhaps elsewhere； i。e。； taking them daily to visit the sick at the public hospital。 There I have put the symptoms of disease before their eyes； have let them hear the complaints of the patients； and have asked them their opinions as to the causes and rational treatment of each case； and the reasons for those opinions。 Then I have given my own judgment on every point。 Together with me they have seen the happy results of treatment when God has granted to our cares a restoration of health； or they have assisted in examining the body when the patient has paid the inevitable tribute to death。〃＇39＇
＇39＇ Withington： Medical History from the Earliest Times； London； 1894； pp。 312…313。
Glauber； Willis； Mayow； Lemery； Agricola and Stahl led up to Robert Boyle； with whom modern chemistry may be said to begin。 Even as late as 1716； Lady Mary Wortley Montagu in Vienna found that all had transferred their superstitions from religion to chemistry； 〃scarcely a man of opulence or fashion that has not an alchemist in his service。〃 To one scientific man of the period I must refer as the author of the first scientific book published in England。 Dryden sings：
Gilbert shall live till load…stones cease to draw Or British fleets the boundless ocean awe。
And the verse is true； for by the publication in 1600 of the 〃De Magnete〃 the science of electricity was founded。 William Gilbert was a fine type of the sixteenth…century physician； a Colchester man； educated at St。 John's College； Cambridge。 Silvanus Thompson says： 〃He is beyond question rightfully regarded as the Father of Electric Science。 He founded the entire subject of Terrestrial Magnetism。 He also made notable contributions to Astronomy； being the earliest English expounder of Copernicus。 In an age given over to metaphysical obscurities and dogmatic sophistry； he cultivated the method of experiment and of reasoning from observation； with an insight and success which entitles him to be regarded as the father of the inductive method。 That method； so often accredited to Bacon； Gilbert was practicing years before him。〃＇40＇
＇40＇ Silvanus P。 Thompson： Gilbert of Colchester； Father of Electrical Science； London； Chiswick Press； 1903； p。 3。
CHAPTER V
THE RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN MEDICINE
THE middle of the seventeenth century saw the profession thus far on its waycertain objective features of disease were known； the art of careful observation had been cultivated； many empirical remedies had been discovered； the coarser structure of man's body had been well worked out； and a good beginning had been made in the knowledge of how the machinery workednothing more。 What disease really was； where it was； how it was caused； had not even begun to be discussed intelligently。
An empirical discovery of the first importance marks the middle of the century。 The story of cinchona is of special interest； as it was the first great specific in disease to be discovered。 In 1638； the wife of the Viceroy of Peru； the Countess of Chinchon； lay sick of an intermittent fever in the Palace of Lima。 A friend of her husband's； who had become acquainted with the virtues； in fever； of the bark of a certain tree； sent a parcel of it to the Viceroy； and the remedy administered by her physician； Don Juan del Vego； rapidly effected a cure。 In 1640； the Countess returned to Spain； bringing with her a supply of quina bark； which thus became known in Europe as 〃the Countess's Powder〃 （pulvis Comitissae）。 A little later； her doctor followed； bringing additional quantities。 Later in the century； the Jesuit Fathers sent parcels of the bark to Rome； whence it was distributed to the priests of the community and used for the cure of ague； hence the name of 〃Jesuits' bark。〃 Its value was early recognized by Sydenham and by Locke。 At first there was a great deal of opposition； and the Protestants did not like it because of its introduction by the Jesuits。 The famous quack； Robert Talbor； sold the secret of preparing quinquina to Louis XIV in 1679 for two thousand louis d'or； a pension and a title。 That the profession was divided in opinion on the subject was probably due to sophistication； or to the importation of other and inert barks。 It was well into the eighteenth century before its virtues were universally acknowledged。 The tree itself was not described until 1738； and Linnaeus established the genus 〃Chinchona〃 in honor of the Countess。＇1＇
＇1＇ Clements R。 Markham： Peruvian Bark； John Murray； London； 1880； Memoir of the Lady Anna di Osoria； Countess of Chinchona and Vice…Queen of Peru； 1874。
A step in advance followed the objective study of the changes wrought in the body by disease。 To a few of these the anatomists had already called attention。 Vesalius； always keen in his description of aberrations from the normal； was one of the first to describe internal aneurysm。 The truth is； even the best of men had little or no appreciation of the importance of the study of these changes。 Sydenham scoffs at the value of post…mortems。
Again we have to go back to Italy for the beginning of these studies； this time to Florence； in the glorious days of Lorenzo the Magnificent。 The pioneer now is not a professor but a general practitioner； Antonio Benivieni； of whom we know very little save that he was a friend of Marsilio Ficino and of Angelo Poliziano； and that he practiced in Florence during the last third of the fifteenth century； dying in 1502。 Through associations with the scholars of the day。 he had become a student of Greek medicine and he was not only a shrewd and accurate observer of nature but a bold and successful practitioner。 He had formed the good habit of making brief notes of his more important cases； and after his death these were found by his brother Jerome and published in 1507。＇2＇ This book has a rare value as the record of the experience of an unusually intelligent practitioner of the period。 There are in all 111 observations； most of them commendably brief。 The only one of any length deals with the new 〃Morbus Gallicus；〃 of which； in the short period between its appearance and Benivieni's death； he had seen enough to leave a very accurate description； and it is interesting to note that even in those early days mercury was employed for its cure。 The surgical cases are of exceptional interest； and No。 38 refers to a case of angina for which he performed a successful operation。 This is supposed to have been a tracheotomy； and if so； it is the first in the fourteen centuries that had elapsed since the days of Antyllus。＇3＇ There are other important cases which show that he was a dexterous and fearless surgeon。 But the special interest of the work for us is that； for the first time in modern literature； we have reports of post…mortem examinations made specifically with a view to finding out the exact cause of death。 Among the 111 cases； there are post…mortem records of cases of gallstones； abscess of the mesentery； thrombosis of the mesenteric veins； several cases of heart disease； senile gangrene and one of cor villosum。 From no other book do we get so good an idea of a practitioner's experience at this period； the notes are plain and straightforward； and singularly free from all theoretical and therapeutic vagaries。 He gives several remarkable instances of faith healing。
＇2＇ De abditis nonnullis ac mirandis morborum et sanationum causis。 8th； Florence； Gandhi； 1507。
＇3＇ Possibly it was only a case of angina Ludovici； or retro…pharyngeal abscess。
To know accurately the anatomical changes that take place in disease is of importance both for diagnosis and for treatment。 The man who created the science； who taught us to think anatomically of disease； was Morgagni； whose 〃De sedibus et causis morborum per anatomen indagatis〃＇4＇ is one of the great books in our literature。 During the seventeenth century； the practice of making post…mortem examinations had extended greatly； and in the 〃Sepulchretum anatomicum〃 of Bonetus （1679）； these scattered fragments are collected。＇5＇ But the work of Morgagni is of a different type； for in it are the clinical and anatomical observations of an able physician during a long and active life。 The work had an interesting origin。 A young friend interested in science and in medicine was fond of discoursing with Morgagni about his preceptors； particularly Valsalva and Albertini； and sometimes the young man inquired about Morgagni's own observations and thoughts。 Yielding to a strong wish； Morgagni consented to write his young friend familiar letters describing his experiences。 I am sorry that Morgagni does not mention the name of the man to whom we are so much indebted； and who； he states； was so pleased with the letters that he continually solicited him to send more and more 〃till he drew me on so far as the seventieth；