the origins of contemporary france-4- 第105部分

corporations；

*　when　it　suppresses　legally　established　credits　without　indemnity；

*　when；　by　dint　of　expenditure　and　the　burdens　this　creates；　it

becomes　insolvent；

*　when；　through　its　paper…money　and　forced　circulation；　it　annuls

indebtedness　in　the　hands　of　the　creditor；　and　allows　the　debtor　to　go

scot…free；

*　when　it　arbitrarily　seizes　current　capital；

*　when　it　makes　forced　loans　and　requisitions；

*　when　its　tax　on　productions　surpasses　the　cost　of　production　and　on

merchandise　the　profit　on　its　sale；

*　when　it　constrains　the　manufacturer　to　manufacture　at　a　loss　and　the

merchant　to　sell　at　a　loss；

*　when　its　principles；　judged　by　its　acts；　indicate　a　progression　from

partial　to　a　universal　confiscation。　　…



Ineluctably　every　phase　of　disease　engenders　the　evil　which　follows：

it　is　like　a　poison　the　effects　of　which　spread　or　pass　onwards。　　Each

function；　affected　by　the　derangement　of　the　adjacent　one；　becoming

disturbed　in　its　turn。　　The　perils；　mutilation　and　suppression　of

property　diminish　available　securities　as　well　as　the　courage　that

risks　them；　that　is　to　say；　the　mode　of；　and　disposition　to；　make

advances。　　Through　a　lack　of　funds；　useful　enterprises　languish；　die

out　or　are　not　undertaken。　　Consequently；　the　production；　supply；　and

sale　of　indispensable　articles　slacken；　become　interrupted　and　cease

altogether。　　There　is　less　soap　and　sugar　and　fewer　candles　at　the

grocery；　less　wood　and　coal　in　the　wood…yard；　fewer　oxen　and　sheep　in

the　markets；　less　meat　at　the　butcher's；　less　grain　and　flour　at　the

corn…exchange；　and　less　bread　at　the　bakeries。　　As　articles　of　prime

necessity　are　scarce　they　become　dear；　as　people　contend　for　them

their　dearness　increases；　the　rich　man　ruins　himself　in　the　struggle

to　get　hold　of　them；　while　the　poor　man　never　gets　any；　and　the　bare

necessities　become　unattainable。



II。　　Conditions　in　1793。　　A　Lesson　in　Market　Economics。



Economical　effect　of　the　Jacobin　policy　from　1789　to　1793。　　…　Attacks

on　property。　　…　Direct　attacks。　　…　Jacqueries；　effective　confiscations

and　proclamation　of　the　socialist　creed。　　…　Indirect　attacks。　　…　Bad

administration　of　the　public　funds。　　…　Transformation　of　taxation　and

insignificance　of　the　returns。　　…　Increased　expenditures。　　…　The　War…

budget　and　subsistence　after　1793。　　…　Paper　money。　　…　Enormous　issues

of　it。　　…　Credit　of　the　Assignats　run　down。　　…　Ruin　of　Public

creditors　and　of　all　private　credit。　　…　Rate　of　interest　during　the

Revolution。　　…　Stoppage　of　trade　and　industry。　　…　Bad　management　of

new　land…owners。　　…　Decrease　of　productive　labor。　　…　Only　the　small

rural　land…owner　works　advantageously。　　…　Why　he　refuses　Assignats。　　…

He　is　no　longer　obliged　to　sell　his　produce　at　once。　　…　High　cost　of

food。　　…　It　reaches　a　market　with　difficulty　and　in　small　quantities。

…　The　towns　buy　at　a　high　price　and　sell　at　a　low　one。　　…　Food　becomes

dearer　and　famine　begins。　　…　Prices　during　the　first　six　months　of

1793。



Such　is　the　hardship　in　France　at　the　moment　when　the　Jacobin　conquest

has　been　completed；　a　misery　of　which　the　Jacobins　are　the　cause　due

to　the　systematic　war　they　have　waged　against　property　during　the

preceding　four　years。



From　below；　they　have　provoked；　excused；　amnestied；　or　tolerated　and

authorized　all　the　popular　attacks　on　property；＇3＇　countless

insurrections；　seven　successive　jacqueries；　some　of　them　so　extensive

as　to　cover　eight　or　ten　departments　at　the　same　time。　　The　last　one

let　loose　on　all　France　a　universal　and　lasting　brigandage；　the

arbitrary　rule　of　paupers；　vagabonds　and　ruffians；　every　species　of

robbery；　from　a　refusal　to　pay　rents　and　leases　to　the　sacking　of

chateaux　and　ordinary　domiciles；　even　to　the　pillage　of　markets　and

granaries。　　Free　scope　was　given　to　mobs　which；　under　a　political

pretext；　tax　and　ransom　the　〃suspects　〃　of　all　classes　at　pleasure；

not　alone　the　noble　and　the　rich　but　the　peaceable　farmer　and　well…to…

do　artisan。　　In　short；　the　country　reverted　back　to　a　natural　state；

the　sovereignty　of　appetites；　greed　and　lust；　to　mankind's　return　to　a

savage；　primitive　life　in　the　forests。　　Only　a　short　time　before；　in

the　month　of　February；　1793；　through　Marat's　recommendation；　and　with

the　connivance　of　the　Jacobin　municipality；　the　Paris　riff…raff　had

broken　into　twelve　hundred　groceries　and　divided　on　the　spot；　either

gratis　or　at　the　price　it　fixed；　sugar；　soap；　brandy　and　coffee。



From　above；　they　had　undertaken；　carried　out　and　multiplied　the　worst

assaults　on　property；　vast　spoliations　of　every　sort；　the　suppression

of　hundreds　of　millions　of　incomes　and　the　confiscation　of　billions　of

capital；　the　abolition　without　indemnity　of　tithes　and　quitrents；　the

expropriation　of　the　property　of　the　clergy；　of　emigrés；　that　of　the

order　of　Malta；　that　of　the　pious；　charitable　and　educational

associations　and　endowments；　even　laic；　seizures　of　plate；　of　the

sacred　vessels　and　precious　ornaments　of　the　churches。　　And；　because

they　have　the　power；　others　still　more　vast。　　After　August　10；　their

newspapers　in　Paris　and　their　commissioners　in　the　departments；＇4＇

have　preached



　〃the　agrarian　law；　the　holding　of　all　property　in　common；　the

leveling　of　fortunes；　the　right　of　each　fraction　of　the　sovereign

people〃　to　help　itself　by　force　to　all　food　and　stores　at　the　expense

of　the　owner；　to　hunt　down　the　rich；　proscribe　〃land…owners；　leading

merchants；　financiers　and　all　men　in　possession　of　whatever　is

superfluous。〃



Rousseau's　dogma　that　〃the　fruit　belongs　to　everybody　and　the　soil　to

no　one〃　is　established　at　an　early　date　as　a　maxim　of　State　in　the

Convention；　while　in　the　deliberations　of　the　sovereign　assembly

socialism；　openly　avowed；　becomes　ascendant；　and；　afterwards；　supreme。

According　to　Robespierre；＇5＇



〃whatever　is　essential　to　preserve　life　is　common　property　to　society

at　large。　　It　is　only　the　excess　which　may　be　given　up　to　individuals

and　surrendered　to　commercial　enterprise。〃



With　still　greater　solemnity；　the　pontiff　of　the　sect；　in　the

Declaration　of　Rights　which；　unanimously　adopted　by　the　all…powerful

Jacobin　club；　is　to　serve　as　the　corner…stone　of　the　new　institutions；

pens　the　following　formula　heavy　with　their　consequences：＇6＇



〃Society　must　provide　for　the　support　of　all　its　members。　　The　aid

required　by　indigence　is　a　debt　of　the　rich　to　the　poor。　　The　right　of

property　is　limited；　and　applies　only　to　that　portion　which　the　law

guarantees。　　Every　ownership；　any　trade；　which　bears　prejudicially　on

the　existence　of　our　fellow…creatures　is　necessarily　illicit　and

immoral。〃



The　meaning　of　this　is　more　than　clear：　the　Jacobin　populace；　having

decided　that　the　possession　of；　and　trade　in；　groceries　was

prejudicial　to　its　existence；　the　grocers'　monopoly　is；　therefore；

immoral　and　illicit；　and　consequently；　it　pillages　their　shops。　　Under

the　rule　of　the　populace　and　of　the　〃Mountain；〃　the　Convention　applies

the　theory；　seizes　capital　wherever　it　can　be　found；　and　notifies　the

poor；　in　its　name；



〃that　they　will　find　in　the　pocket…books　of　the　rich　whatever　they

need　to　supply　their　wants。〃＇7＇



Over　and　above　these　striking　and　direct　attacks；　an　indirect　and

hidden　attack；　even　more　significant；　which　slowly　undermines　the

basis　of　all　present　and　future　property。　　State　affairs　are

everybody's　affairs；　and；　when　the　State　ruins　itself；　everybody　is

ruined　along　with　it。　　For；　it　is　the　country's　greatest　debtor　and

its　greatest　creditor；　while　there　is　no　debtor　so　free　of　seizure　and

no　creditor　so　absorbing；　since；　making　the　laws　and　possessing　the

force；　it　can；　firstly；　repudiate　indebtedness　and　send　away　the　fund…

holder　with　empty　hands；　and　next；　increase　taxation　and　empty　the

taxpayer's　pocket　of　his　last　penny。　　There　is　no　greater　menace　to

private　fortunes　than　the　bad　administration　of　the　public　fortune。

Now；　under　the　pressure　of　Jacobin　principles　and　of　the　Jacobin

faction；　the　trustees　of　France　have　administered　the　country　as　if

they　purposely　meant　to　ruin　their　ward；　every　known　means　for　wasting

a　fortune　have　been　brought　into　play　by　them。　　…　In　the　first　place；

they　have　deprived　him　of　three…fourths　of　his　income。　　To　please　the

people　and　enforce　the　theory；　the　taxes　on　articles　consumed；　on

salt；　with　the　excise　subsidies　and　the　octroi　duties　on　liquors；

meat；　tobacco；　leather　and　gunpowder；　have　been　abolished；　while　the

new　imposts　substituted　for　the　old　ones；　slowly　fixed；　badly

apportioned　and　raised　with　difficulty　have　brought　in　no　returns。　　On

the　1st　of　February；　1793；＇8＇　the　Treasury　had　received　on　the　real

and　personal　taxation　of　1791；　but　one　hundred　and　fifty　millions

instead　of　three　hundred　millions。　　On　the　same　taxes　for　1792；

instead　of　three　hundred　millions　it　had　obtained　nothing　at　all。　　At

this　date；　and　during　the　four　years　of　the　Revolution；　the　total

arrears　of　taxation　amounted　to　six　hundred　and　thirty…two　millions　…

a　bad　debt　that　can　hardly　be　recovered；　and；　in　fact；　it　is　already

reduced　one…half；　since；　even　if　the　debtor　could　and　was　disposed　to

pay；　he　would　pay　in　assignats；　which；　at　this　time；　were　at　a　discount

of　fifty　per　cent。　　…　In　the　second　place；　the　new　managers　had

quadrupled　the　public　expenditure。＇9＇　What　with　the　equipment　and

excursions　of　the　National　Guards　federations；　patriotic　festivals

and　parades；　the　writing；　printing　and　publication　of　innumerable

documents；　reimbursements　for　suppressed　offices；　the　installation

of　new　administrations；　aid　to　the　indigent　and　to　its　charity

workshops；　purchases　of　grain；　indemnities　to　millers　and　bakers；

it　was　under　the　necessity　of　providing　for　the　cost　of　the

universal　demolition　and　reconstruction。　　Now；　the　State　had；　for　the

most　part；　defrayed　all　these　expenses。　　At　the　end　of　April；　1793；　it

had　already　advanced　to　the　city　of　Paris　alone；　one　hundred