vill2- 第23部分

ection　to　the　lord；　and　the　free　person　settled　on　servile　land。　Both　classes　mentioned　and　distinguished　by　Bracton　are　covered　by　it。　The　common　opposition　is　between　villanus　and　libere　tenens；　not　between　villanus　and　liber　homo。　It　is　not　difficult　to　explain　such　a　phraseology　in　books　compiled　either　in　the　immediate　interest　of　the　lords　or　under　their　indirect　influence；　but　it　must　have　necessarily　led　to　encroachments　and　disputes：　it　has　even　become　a　snare　for　later　investigators；　who　have　sometimes　been　led　to　consider　as　one　compact　mass　a　population　consisting　of　two　different　classes；　each　with　a　separate　history　of　its　own。　The　Latin　'rusticus'　is　applied　in　the　same　general　way。　lt　is　less　technical　however；　and　occurs　chiefly　in　annals　anD　other　literary　productions；　for　which　it　was　better　suited　by　its　classical　Derivation。　But　when　it　is　used　in　opposition　to　other　terms；　it　stands　exactly　as　villanus。　that　is　to　say；　it　is　contrasted　with　libere　tenens。（4*）　　　　　The　fundamental　distinction　of　personal　status　has　left　some　traces　in　terminology。　The　Hundred　Rolls；　especially　the　Warwickshire　one；（5*）　mention　servi　very　often。　Sometimes　the　word　is　used　exactly　as　villanus　would　be。（6*）　Tenere　in　servitute　and　tenere　in　villenagio　are　equivalent。（7*）　But　other　instances　show　that　servus　has　also　a　special　meaning。　Cases　where　it　occurs　in　an　'extent'　immediately　after　villanus；　and　possibly　in　opposition　to　it；　are　not　decisive。（8*）　They　may　be　explained　by　the　fact　that　the　persons　engaged　in　drawing　up　a　custumal；　jotted　down　denominations　of　the　peasantry　without　comparing　them　carefully　with　what　preceded。　A　marginal　note　servi　would　not　be　necessarily　opposed　to　a　villani　following　it；　it　may　only　be　a　different　name　for　the　same　thing。　And　it　may　be　noted　that　in　the　Hundred　Rolls　these　names　very　often　stand　in　the　margin；　and　not　in　the　text。　But　such　an　explanation　would　be　out　of　place　when　both　expressions　are　used　in　the　same　sentence。　The　description　of　Ipsden　in　Oxfordshire　has　the　following　passage：　item　dietus　R。　de　N。　hanet　de　proparte　sua　septem　servos　villanos。　（Rot。　Hundr。　ii。　781；　b：　cf。　775；　b；　Servi　Custumarii。）　It　is　clear　that　it　was　intended；　not　only　to　describe　the　general　condition　of　the　peasantry；　but　to　define　more　particularly　their　status。　This　observation　and　the　general　meaning　of　the　word　will　lead　us　to　believe　that　in　many　cases　when　it　is　used　by　itself；　it　implies　personal　subjection。　　　　　The　term　nativus　has　a　similar　sense。　But　the　relation　between　it　and　villanus　is　not　constant；　sometimes　this　latter　marks　the　genus；　while　the　former　applies　to　a　species；　but　sometimes　they　are　used　interchangeably；（9*）　and　the　feminine　for　villain　is　nieve　（nativa）。　But　while　villanus　is　made　to　appear　both　in　a　wide　and　in　a　restricted　sense；　and　for　this　reason　cannot　be　used　as　a　special　qualification；　nativus　has　only　the　restricted　sense　suggesting　status。（10*）　In　connection　with　other　denominations　nativus　is　used　for　the　personally　unfree。（11*）　When　we　find　nativus　domini；　the　personal　relation　to　the　lord　is　especially　noticed。（12*）　The　sense　being　such；　no　wonder　that　the　nature　of　the　tenure　is　sometimes　described　in　addition。（13*）　Of　course；　the　primary　meaning　is；　that　a　person　has　been　born　in　the　power　of　the　lord；　and　in　this　sense　it　is　opposed　to　the　stranger　　forinsecus；　extraneus。（14*）　In　this　sense　again　the　Domesday　of　St。　Paul's　speaks　of　'nativi　a　principio'　in　Navestock。（15*）　But　the　fact　of　being　born　to　the　condition　supposes　personal　subjection；　and　this　explains　why　nativi　are　sometimes　mentioned　in　contrast　with　freemen；（16*）　without　any　regard　being　paid　to　the　question　of　tenure。　Natives；　or　villains　born；　had　their　pedigrees　as　well　as　the　most　noble　among　the　peers。　Such　pedigrees　were　drawn　up　to　prevent　any　fraudulent　assertion　as　to　freedom；　and　to　guide　the　lord　in　case　he　wanted　to　use　the　native's　kin　in　prosecution　of　an　action　de　nativo　habendo。　One　such　pedigree　preserved　in　the　Record　Office　is　especially　interesting；　because　it　starts　from　some　stranger；　extraneus；（17*）　who　came　into　the　manor　as　a　freeman；　and　whose　progeny　lapses　into　personal　villainage；　apparently　it　is　a　case　of　villainage　by　prescription。　　　　　The　other　subdivision　of　the　class…freemen　holding　unfree　land（18*）　　has　no　special　denomination。　This　deprives　us　of　a　very　important　clue　as　to　the　composition　of　the　peasantry；　but　we　may　gather　from　the　fact　how　very　near　both　divisions　must　have　stood　to　each　other　in　actual　life。　The　free　man　holding　in　villainage　had　the　right　to　go　away；　while　the　native　was　legally　bound　to　the　lord；　but　it　was　difficult　for　the　one　to　leave　land　and　homestead；　and　it　was　not　impossible　for　the　other　to　fly　from　them；　if　he　were　ill…treated　by　his　lord　or　the　steward。　Even　the　fundamental　distinction　could　not　be　drawn　very　sharply　in　the　practice　of　daily　life；　and　in　every　other　respect；　as　to　services；　mode　of　holding；　etc。；　there　was　no　distinction。　No　wonder　that　the　common　term　villanus　is　used　quite　broadly；　and　aims　at　the　tenure　more　than　at　personal　status。　　　　　Terms　which　have　in　view　the　general　economic　condition　of　the　peasant；　vary　a　good　deal　according　to　localities。　Even　in　private　documents　they　are　on　the　whole　less　frequent　than　the　terms　of　the　first　class；　and　the　Hundred　Rolls　use　them　but　very　rarely。　It　wOUld　be　very　wrong　to　imply　that　they　were　not　widely　spread　in　practice。　On　the　contrary；　their　vernacular　forms　vouch　for　their　vitality　and　their　use　in　common　speech。　But　being　vernacular　and　popular　in　origin；　these　terms　cannot　obtain　the　uniformity　and　currency　of　literary　names　employed　and　recognised　by　official　authority。　The　vernacular　equivalent　for　villanus　seems　to　have　been　niet　or　neat。（19*）　It　points　to　the　regular　cultivators　of　the　arable；　possessed　of　holdings　of　normal　size　and　performing　the　typical　services　of　the　manor。（20*）　The　peasant's　condition　is　here　regarded　from　the　economical　side；　in　the　mutual　relation　of　tenure　and　work；　not　in　the　strictly　legal　sense；　and　men　of　this　category　form　the　main　stock　of　the　manorial　population。　The　Rochester　Custumal　says（21*）　that　neats　are　more　free　than　cottagers；　and　that　they　hold　virgates。　The　superior　degree　of　freedom　thus　ascribed　to　them　is　certainly　not　to　be　taken　in　the　legal　sense；　but　is　merely　a　superiority　in　material　condition。　The　contrast　with　cottagers　is　a　standing　one；（22*）　and；　being　the　main　population　of　the　village；　neats　are　treated　sometimes　as　if　they　were　the　only　people　there。（23*）　The　name　may　be　explained　etymologically　by　the　Anglo…Saxon　geneat；　which　in　documents　of　the　tenth　and　eleventh　century　means　a　man　using　another　person's　land。　The　differences　in　application　may　be　discussed　when　we　come　to　examine　the　Saxon　evidence。　　　　　Another　Saxon　term　…　gebur　…　has　left　its　trace　in　the　burus　and　buriman　of　Norman　records。　The　word　does　not　occur　very　often；　and　seems　to　have　been　applied　in　two　different　ways…to　the　chief　villains　of　the　township　in　some　places；　and　to　the　smaller　tenantry；　apparently　in　confusion　with　the　Norman　bordarius；　in　some　other。（24*）　The　very　possibility　of　such　a　confusion　shows　that　it　was　going　out　of　common　use。　On　the　other　hand；　the　Danish　equivalent　bondus　is　widely　spread。　It　is　to　be　found　constantly　in　the　Danish　counties。（25*）　The　original　meaning　is　that　of　cultivator　or　'husband'　　the　same　in　fact　as　that　of　gebur　and　boor。　Feudal　records　give　curious　testimony　of　the　way　in　which　the　word　slid　down　into　the　'bondage'　of　the　present　day。　We　see　it　wavering；　as　it　were；　sometimes　exchanging　with　servus　and　villanus；　and　sometimes　opposed　to　them。（26*）　Another　word　of　kindred　meaning；　chiefly　found　in　eastern　districts；　is　landsettus；　with　the　corresponding　term　for　the　tenure；（27*）　this　of　course　according　to　its　etymology　simply　means　an　occupier；　a　man　sitting　on　land。　　　　　Several　terms　are　found　which　have　regard　to　the　nature　of　services。　Agricultural　work　was　the　most　common　and　burdensome　expression　of　economical　subjection。　Peasants　who　have　to　perform　such　services　in　kind　instead　of　paying　rents　for　them　are　called　operarii。（28*）　Another　designation　which　may　be　found　everywhere　is　consuetudinarii　or　custumarii。（29*）　It　points　to　customary　services；　which　the　people　were　bound　to　perform。　When　such　tenants　are　opposed　to　the　villains；　they　are　probably　free　men　holding　in　villainage　by　customary　work。（30*）　As　the　name　does　not　give　any　indication　as　to　the　importance　of　the　holding　a　qualification　is　sometimes　added　to　it；　which　determines　the　size　of　the　tenement。（31*）　　　　　In　many　manors　we　find　a　group　of　tenants；　possessed　of　small　plots　of　land　for　the　service　of　following　the　demesne　ploughs。　These　are　called　akermanni　or　carucarii　（32*）；　are　mostly　selected　among　the　customary　holders；　and　enjoy　an　immunity　from　ordinary　work　as　long　as　they　have　to　perform　their　special　duty。（33*）　On　some　occasions　the　records　mention　gersumarii；　that　is　peasants　who　pay　a　gersuma；　a　fine　for　marrying　their　daughters。（34*）　This　payment　being　considered　as　the　badge　of　personal　serfdom；　the　class　must　have　consisted　of　men　personally　unfree。　　　　　Those　names　remain　to　be　noticed　which　reflect　the　size　of　the　holding。　In　one　of　the　manors　belonging　to　St。　Paul's　Cathedral　in　London　we　find　hidarii。（35*）　This　does　not　mean　that　every　tenant　held　a　whole　hide。　On　the　contrary；　they　have　each　only　a　part　of　the　hide；　but　their　plots　are　reckoned　up　into　hides；　and　the　services　due　from　the　whole　hide　are　stated。　Virgatarius（36*）　is　of　very　common　occurrence；　because　the　virgate　was　considered　as　the　normal　holding　of　a　peasant。　It　is　curious　that　in　consequence　the　virgate　is　sometimes　called　simply　terra；　and　holders　of　virgates　　yerdlings。（37*）　Peasants　possessed　of　half　virgates　are　halfyerdlings　accordingly。　The　expressions　'a　full　villain'（38*）　and　'half　a　villain'　must　be　understood　in　the　same　sense。　They　have　nothing　to　do　with　rank；　but　aim　merely　at　the　size　of　the　farm　and　the　quantity　of　services　and　rents。　Ferlingseti　are　to　be　met　with　now　and　then　in　connexion　with　the　ferling　or　ferdel；　the　fourth　part　of　a　virgate。（39*）　　　　　The　constant　denomination　for　those　who　have　no　par