political economy- 第15部分

est；　this　class　ought　to　be　precisely　the　class　of　day…labourers。　They　are　more　numerous　than　any　other；　and　to　secure　their　happiness　is　to　make　the　greatest　portion　of　the　nation　happy。　They　have　fewer　enjoyments　than　any　other；　they　obtain　less　advantage　than　any　other　from　the　constitution　of　society；　they　produce　wealth；　and　themselves　obtain　scarcely　any　share　of　it。　Obliged　to　struggle　for　subsistence　with　their　employers；　they　are　not　a　match　for　them　in　strength。　Masters　and　workmen　are　indeed　mutually　necessary　to　each　other；　but　the　necessity　weighs　daily　on　the　workman；　it　allows　respite　to　his　master。　The　first　must　work　that　he　may　live；　the　second　may　wait　and　live　for　a　time　without　employing　workmen。　Hence　in　the　riots　and　combinations　of　workmen　for　obtaining　an　increase　of　wages；　their　conduct　is　often　violent　and　tumultuous；　and　often　merits　the　chastisement　which　it　never　fails　to　receive；　but　scarcely　an　instance　exists；　where　justice　has　not　been　upon　their　side。　　　　　The　expedients　invented　by　governments　to　assist　their　merchants　in　selling　dear；　are　numerous。　Some　tend　to　diminish　the　number　of　producers　in　a　market　of　given　extent；　and　therefore　to　force　buyers　to　raise　their　price；　such　are　apprenticeships；　corporations；　monopolies　granted　to　companies；　prohibitions　to　import；　exclusive　governments　of　colonies；　and　favours　obtained　by　treaties　of　commerce；　others；　such　as　bounties　and　drawbacks；　are　destined　really　to　extend　the　market；　though；　by　securing　to　the　manufacturer　a　profit　at　the　government's　expense；　not　the　consumer's。　　　　　The　regulations　of　apprenticeships　and　the　statutes　of　corporations；　were　destined；　it　is　said；　to　hinder　ignorant　workmen　from　following　any　trade　which　they　did　not　yet　understand；　they　were　forced　to　devote　a　determinate　number　of　years　to　learn　it；　and　afterwards　to　gain　admission　into　a　body　which　always　made　obstacles　to　the　entrance　of　new　comers；　and　limited　their　number。　The　pretence　of　thus　watching　over　the　training　of　artisans　cannot　be　made　good。　It　has　often　been　proved；　that　rivalship　alone　gives　that　training；　whilst　a　long　apprenticeship　blunts　the　mind　and　discourages　industry；　but　the　true；　though　secret　object；　to　diminish　the　number　of　those　exercising　a　trade；　was　attained。　The　corporate　body　exercised　a　kind　of　monopoly　against　the　consumer；　it　took　care　at　all　times　to　keep　the　supply　below　the　demand。　The　merchant　doubtless　gained　more；　but　he　gained　on　a　smaller　production。　There　was　less　work　done；　less　increase　of　capital；　less　population　supported；　and　as　to　the　merchant's　extraordinary　profit；　it　was　compensated　by　an　equal　loss　to　the　consumer；　who　was　obliged　to　pay；　not　according　to　his　own　advantage　or　convenience；　but　according　to　the　arbitrary　caprice　of　a　corporation　which　gave　laws　to　him。　　　　　In　all　trading　counties；　a　more　or　less　exclusive　monopoly　has　been　granted；　on　certain　occasions；　to　some　associations　of　merchants；　under　the　name　of　Trading　Companies。　The　avowed　motive　for　sacrificing　the　whole　class　to　this　privileged　number　was　the　particular　nature　of　the　trade　thus　subjected　to　a　monopoly；　which　trade　it　was　said　could　not　be　supported　except　by　very　extensive　funds；　but　governments　had　often　a　secret　motive　besides；　and　this　was；　the　sum　of　money　for　which　the　merchants　bought　their　privilege。　A　company's　monopoly　has　never　failed　to　heighten　the　price　for　the　consumer；　to　diminish　production　and　consumption；　to　give　the　national　capital　a　false　direction；　sometimes　by　attracting　it　prematurely　to　a　branch　of　trade　which　was　not　yet　suitable；　sometimes　by　repelling　it　when　fruitlessly　seeking　an　employment。　But　although　companies　obtained　the　desired　privilege　of　buying　cheap　and　selling　dear；　by　nature　they　are　so　ill　suited　for　economy　and　trading　speculations；　that　although　amazingly　rich；　and　sometimes　sovereigns　of　counties；　these　companies；　their　administrators　having　no　immediate　interest　in　the　prosperity　of　their　trust；　have　almost　all　been　robbed；　and　very　few　of　them　have　not　ended　in　bankruptcy。　　　　　These　different　expedients　for　the　protection　of　commerce；　are　now　generally　decried；　though　almost　all　governments　yet　agree　in　repelling　from　their　states　the　produce　of　foreign　manufactories；　or　at　least　in　loading　it　with　heavy　duties；　to　give　the　national　produce　an　advantage。　The　prohibitive　system　of　custom…house　duties　plainly　gives　to　a　growing　manufactory　an　advantage　equivalent　to　the　largest　bounty。　Perhaps　this　manufactory　scarcely　produces　the　hundredth　part　of　what　the　nation　consumes　of　such　commodities；　but　the　hundred　purchasers　must　compete　with　each　other　to　obtain　the　one　seller's　preference；　and　the　ninety…nine　rejected　by　him　will　be　compelled　to　obtain　goods　by　smuggling。　In　this　case；　the　nation's　loss　will　be　as　a　hundred；　its　gain　as　one。　Whatever　advantage　may　arise　from　giving　a　new　manufacture　to　a　nation；　certainly　there　are　few　which　deserve　such　a　sacrifice　and　even　these　might　always　be　set　a…going　by　less　expensive　means。　Besides；　we　must　also　take　into　account　the　weighty　inconveniences　of　establishing　the　vexatious　system　of　duties；　of　covering　the　frontiers　with　an　army　of　customhouse　officers；　and　with　another　not　less　dangerous　army　of　smugglers；　and　thus　of　training　the　subjects　to　disobedience。　We　must　remember；　above　all；　that　it　is　not　the　interest　of　a　nation　to　produce　every　thing　indifferently；　that　it　ought　to　confine　its　efforts　to　such　goods　or　commodities　as　it　can　manufacture　at　the　cheapest　rate；　or　to　such　as；　whatever　price　they　cost；　are　essential　to　its　safety。　It　ought　to　be　recollected　that　each　merchant　knows　his　own　business　better　than　government　can　do；　that　the　whole　nation's　productive　power　is　limited；　that　in　a　given　time；　it　has　but　a　given　number　of　hands；　and　a　given　quantity　of　capital；　that　by　forcing　it　to　enter　upon　a　kind　of　work　which　it　did　not　previously　execute；　we　almost　always　at　the　same　time　force　it　to　abandon　a　kind　of　work　which　it　did　execute：　whilst　the　most　probable　result　of　such　a　change　is　the　abandonment　of　a　more　lucrative　manufacture　for　another　which　is　less　so；　and　which　personal　interest　had　designedly　overlooked。　　　　　If　the　prohibitive　system　gives　a　very　powerful；　though　very　expensive　encouragement　to　rising　manufactures；　it　can　offer；　in　regard　to　such；　no　advantage　to　those　which　are　already　prosperous；　the　sacrifice　at　least　which　it　imposes　on　consumers；　is　entirely　useless。　If　the　manufacture　was　destined　for　exportation；　government；　by　granting　a　monopoly　of　the　interior　market；　causes　it　to　abandon　its　ancient　habits　to　assume　others　which　probably　are　less　advantageous。　Every　manufacture　destined　for　exportation　gives　proof　of　not　fearing　the　competition　of　foreigners。　From　the　moment　that　it　can　support　competition　abroad；　notwithstanding　the　expense　of　transport；　it　has　still　less　reason　to　dread　this　competition　in　the　very　place　of　production。　Thus　nothing　is　more　common　than　to　see　goods　prohibited　which　never　could　have　been　imported　with　advantage；　and　which　gained　credit　solely　by　being　so　prohibited。　　　　　By　the　prohibitive　system；　governments　had　proposed　to　increase　the　number　and　productive　powers　of　their　manufactures。　It　is　doubtful　if　they　rightly　knew　the　price　they　paid　for　this　advantage；　and　the　prodigious　sacrifices　they　imposed　on　consumers；　their　subjects；　to　bring　into　existence　an　unborn　class　of　producers；　but　they　succeeded　much　more　rapidly　even　than　speculators　on　political　economy　expected。　For　a　time　they　excited　the　bitterest　complaints　on　the　part　of　consumers；　but　even　these　complaints　ceased　afterwards；　because　sacrifices　in　fact　had　also　ceased；　and　manufactures　so　powerfully　encouraged；　had　soon　provided　with　profusion　for　the　national　wants。　But　this　emulation　of　all　governments　to　establish　manufactures　every　where；　has　produced　two　strange　and　unexpected　effects　on　the　commercial　system　of　Europe；　one　is　the　disproportionate　increase　of　production　without　any　relation　to　consumption；　the　other　is　the　effort　of　each　nation　to　live　isolated；　to　suffice　for　itself；　and　refuse　every　kind　of　foreign　trade。　　　　　Before　governments　had　been　seized　with　this　manufacturing　ardour；　the　establishment　of　a　new　manufacture　had　always　to　struggle　with　a　crowd　of　national　habits　and　prejudices；　which　form　as　it　were　the　vis　inertiae　of　the　human　mind。　To　overcome　this　force；　it　was　necessary　to　offer　speculators　a　very　manifest　advantage；　hence　a　new　species　of　industry　could　scarcely　arise　without　a　distinct　previous　demand；　and　the　market　was　always　found　before　the　manufacture　destined　to　occupy　it。　Governments；　in　their　zeal；　have　not　proceeded　upon　this　principle；　they　have　ordered　stockings　and　hats　beforehand；　reckoning　that　legs　and　heads　would　be　found　afterwards。　They　have　seen　their　people　well　and　economically　clothed　by　strangers；　and　yet　have　caused　them　to　produce　clothes　in　the　country　itself。　During　war；　this　new　production　was　not　capable　of　being　too　exactly　appreciated；　but　when　peace　came；　it　was　found　that　all　things　had　been　made　in　double　quantity；　and　the　readier　the　mutual　communication　of　states　had　become；　the　more　embarrassed　were　they　to　dispose　of　all　their　works　executed　without　orders。　　　　　Consumers　who　at　the　beginning　had　been　satisfied；　afterwards　found　themselves　called　to　unexpected　gains；　because　merchants；　eager　to　recover　their　funds；　were　forced　to　sell　a　very　great　quantity　of　goods　with　loss。　Manufacturers　gave　the　signal　for　these　sacrifices；　resigning　themselves　to　a　cruel　loss　of　their　capital；　they　induced　extensive　merchants　to　furnish　themselves　with　goods　beyond　their　custom　or　ability；　in　order　to　profit　by　what　appeared　a　good　opportunity。　Several　of　the　latter　have　been　forced　to　experience　a　similar　loss；　before　their　excessive　supply　could　be　introduced　to　the　shops　of　retail　dealers；　and　these　again　before　they　could　make　them　be　accepted　by　consumers。　A　universal　embarrassment　was　felt　by　manufacturers；　merchants；　and　retailers；　and　this　was　followed　by　the　annihilation　of　the　capital　destined　to　support　industry。　The　fruit　of　long　saving　and　long　labour　was　lost　in　a　year。　Consumers　have　gained　certainly；　but　their　gain　is　scarcely　percep