political economy- 第4部分

　the　ground；　he　will；　in　like　manner；　convert　it　into　property　and　wealth。　His　island　is　destitute　of　value　so　long　as　no　labour　has　been　bestowed　on　it；　but　if；　instead　of　consuming　its　fruits　the　moment　they　come　to　his　hand；　he　reserves　them　for　future　want；　if　he　commits　them　again　to　the　earth；　again　to　be　multiplied；　if　he　tills　his　fields　to　augment　their　productive　power；　or　defends　them　by　inclosures　from　wild　beasts；　if　he　plants　them　with　trees；　the　fruit　of　which　he　does　not　look　for　till　many　years　have　elapsed；　he　is　then　creating　the　value；　not　only　of　annual　produce　raised　by　his　labour　from　the　ground；　but　also　of　the　ground　itself；　which　he　had　tamed；　as　he　tamed　the　wild　beasts；　and　rendered　fit　to　second　his　exertions。　In　that　case　he　is　rich；　and　the　more　so　the　longer　he　can　suspend　his　labours　without　suffering　new　wants。　　　　　Our　Solitary；　being　now　liberated　from　the　most　pressing　of　all　demands；　that　of　hunger；　may　devote　his　exertions　to　provide　lodging　and　clothes；　or　to　improve　those　already　provided。　He　will　build　himself　a　hut；　and　fit　it　out　with　such　furniture　as　his　unaided　labour　may　suffice　to　construct；　he　will　change　the　skin　and　fleeces　of　his　sheep　into　shoes　or　coats；　and　the　more　convenient　his　dwelling　shall　be　rendered；　the　better　his　storehouse　shall　be　filled　with　provision　for　his　future　food　and　clothing；　the　more　rich　may　he　call　himself。　　　　　The　history　of　this　man　is　the　history　of　the　human　race：　labour　alone　has　created　all　kinds　of　wealth。　However　great　the　beneficence　of　nature；　she　gives　nothing　gratuitously　to　man；　though；　when　addressed　by　him；　she　is　ready　to　lend　her　assistance　in　multiplying　his　powers　to　an　indefinite　extent。　The　history　of　wealth　is；　in　all　cases；　comprised　within　the　limits　now　specified　…　the　labour　which　creates；　the　economy　which　accumulates；　the　consumption　which　destroys。　An　article　which　has　not　been　wrought；　or　has　not　mediately　or　immediately　received　its　value　from　labour；　is　not　wealth；　however　useful；　however　necessary；　it　may　be　for　life。　An　article；　which　is　not　useful　to　man；　which　does　not　satisfy　any　of　his　desires；　and　cannot　mediately　or　immediately　be　employed　in　his　service；　is　not　more　entitled　to　the　name　of　wealth；　whatever　labour　may　have　been　bestowed　on　producing　it。　And　finally；　an　article　which　cannot　be　accumulated　or　kept　for　future　consumption　is　not　wealth；　though　created　by　labour　and　consumed　by　enjoyment。　　　　　Before　possessing　any　medium　of　exchange；　before　discovering　the　precious　metals　which　render　it　so　easy　to　us；　our　Solitary　would　ere　long　learn　to　distinguish　the　different　kinds　of　labour　in　their　relation　to　wealth。　Labour　producing　no　enjoyment　is　useless；　labour；　whose　fruits　are　naturally　incapable　of　being　stored　up　for　future　consumption；　is　unproductive；　whilst　the　only　productive　kinds　of　labour　…　the　only　kinds　producing　wealth　…　are　such　as　leave　behind　them；　in　the　estimation　even　of　our　Solitary；　a　pledge　equal　in　value　to　the　trouble　they　have　cost。　Thus　the　man；　misled　by　analogy；　may　have　imagined　that　he　could　multiply　his　olive…trees　by　planting　the　olives；　he　may　not　have　known　but　that　the　stones　would　germinate　as　in　other　such　vegetables；　till；　after　preparing　the　ground　by　a　complete　and　fatiguing　tillage；　experience　would　teach　him　that　his　toil　had　been　useless；　for　no　olive…tree　was　produced　by　it。　On　the　other　hand；　he　may　have　secured　his　dwelling　from　wolves　and　bears；　and　the　labour　would　be　useful　but　unproductive；　for　its　fruits　cannot　accumulate。　If　previously　accustomed　to　civilized　life；　he　may　have　passed　many　hours　in　playing　on　a　flute；　saved；　we　shall　suppose；　at　his　shipwreck；　the　labour　would　still　be　useful；　and　probably　regarded　as　his　own　pleasure；　but　it　would　be　as　unproductive；　and　for　a　like　reason；　as　before。　He　may　have　bestowed　on　the　care　of　his　person　and　health　much　time；　very　usefully　employed；　this　will　also　be　quite　unproductive　of　wealth。　The　Solitary　will　clearly　perceive　what　difference　there　is　between　productive　labour　and　the　labour　of　hours　in　which　he　amasses　nothing　for　the　future；　and；　without　excluding　himself　from　such　occupations；　he　will　call　them　a　loss　of　time。　　　　　Whatever　holds　of　the　isolated　man；　with　regard　to　creating　and　preserving　wealth；　is　true　also　of　society；　…　when　labour；　shared　among　numerous　individuals；　is　recompensed　by　wages；　while　its　fruits　are　distributed　by　exchange。　For　the　society；　as　well　as　for　the　Solitary；　there　may　be　a　useless　as　well　as　an　unproductive　kind　of　labour；　and；　though　both　of　them　be　paid；　they　still　preserve　their　distinct　character；　since　the　first　corresponds　not　to　the　desires　or　wants　of　the　labourer's　employer；　and　the　second　admits　no　accumulation　of　its　fruits。　The　wage　paid　to　the　workmen　in　either　case　must　not　mislead　us；　it　puts　the　payer　of　it　in　the　workman's　place。　The　part　which　we　formerly　supposed　to　be　performed　by　a　single　individual；　is　now　shared　among　two　or　more　persons；　but　the　result　is　not　altered　in　the　least。　The　day…labourer　who　plants　olives　performs　a　task　which　is　useless　to　his　employer；　though；　if　he　receives　his　hire；　it　may　be　advantageous　to　himself。　The　man　who　defends　his　master　or　society　against　bears　or　hostile　enterprises；　who　takes　charge　of　the　health　or　the　persons　of　others；　who　provides　the　enjoyment　of　music；　or　dramatic　exhibition；　or　dancing；　performs；　just　like　the　Solitary；　a　work　which　is　useful　because　it　is　agreeable；　which　is　lucrative　to　him　because　he　receives　a　hire　for　his　labour；　whilst　he　abandons　the　enjoyment　of　it　to　his　employers；　but　which　is　unproductive　notwithstanding；　because　it　cannot　be　the　object　of　saving　and　accumulation。　He　who　paid　the　wage；　no　longer　has　either　the　wage　itself　in　his　possession；　or　the　thing　for　which　he　gave　it。　　　　　Thus　labour　and　economy　…　the　true　sources　of　wealth　…　exist　for　the　Solitary　as　well　as　for　the　social　man；　and　produce　the　same　kind　of　advantage　to　both。　The　formation　of　society；　however；　and　with　it　the　introduction　of　commerce　and　exchange；　were　necessary　both　to　augment　the　productive　power　of　labour；　by　dividing　it；　and　to　afford　a　more　precise　aim　to　economy；　by　multiplying　the　enjoyments　which　wealth　procures。　Thus　men；　combined　in　society；　produced　more　than　if　each　had　laboured　separately；　and　they　preserve　better　what　they　have　produced；　because　they　feel　the　value　of　it　better。　　　　　Exchange　first　arose　from　superabundance：　〃Give　me　that　article；　which　is　of　no　service　to　you；　and　would　be　useful　to　me；；；　said　one　of　the　contacting　parties；　〃and　I　will　give　you　this　in　return；　which　is　of　no　service　to　me；　and　would　be　useful　to　you。〃　Present　utility　was　not；　however；　the　sole　measure　of　things　exchanged。　Each　estimated　for　himself　the　selling　price；　or　the　trouble　and　time　bestowed　in　the　production　of　his　own　commodity；　and　compared　it　with　the　buying　price；　or　the　trouble　and　time　necessary　for　procuring　the　required　commodity　by　his　own　efforts；　and　no　exchange　could　take　place　till　the　two　contacting　parties；　on　calculating　the　matter；　had　each　discovered　that　it　was　better　thus　to　procure　the　commodity　wanted　than　to　make　it　for　himself。　This　accidental　advantage　soon　pointed　out　to　both　a　constant　source　of　advantage　in　trading；　whenever　the　one　offered　an　article　which　he　excelled　in　making；　for　an　article　which　the　other　excelled　in　making；　for　each　excelled　in　what　he　made　often；　each　was　unskillful　and　slow　at　what　he　made　but　seldom。　Now；　the　more　exclusively　they　devoted　themselves　to　one　kind　of　work；　the　more　dexterity　did　they　acquire　in　it；　the　more　effectually　did　they　succeed　in　rendering　it　easy　and　expeditious。　This　observation　produced　the　division　of　trades；　the　husbandman　quickly　perceived；　that　he　could　not　make　as　many　agricultural　tools　by　himself；　in　a　month；　as　the　blacksmith　would　make　for　him　in　a　day。　　　　　The　same　principle　which　at　first　separated　the　trades　of　the　husbandman；　shepherd；　smith；　and　weaver；　continued　to　separate　those　trades　into　an　indefinite　number　of　departments。　Each　felt　that；　by　simplifying　the　operation　committed　to　him；　he　would　perform　it　in　a　manner　still　more　speedy　and　perfect。　The　weaver　renounced　the　business　of　spinning　and　dyeing；　the　spinning　of　hemp；　cotton；　wool；　and　silk；　became　each　separate　employment；　weavers　were　still　farther　subdivided；　according　to　the　fabric　and　the　destination　of　their　stuffs；　and　at　every　subdivision；　each　workman；　directing　his　attention　to　a　single　object；　experienced　an　increase　in　his　productive　powers。　In　the　interior　of　each　manufactory；　this　division　was　again　repeated；　and　still　with　the　same　success。　Twenty　workmen　all　laboured　at　the　same　thing；　but　each　made　it　undergo　a　different　operation：　and　the　twenty　workmen　found　that　they　had　accomplished　twenty　times　as　much　work　as　when　each　had　laboured　separately。　　　　　Much　more　work　was　executed　in　the　world　by　the　division　of　labour；　but；　at　the　same　time；　much　more　was　required　to　supply　the　consumption。　The　wants　and　the　enjoyments　of　the　Solitary；　who　laboured　for　himself；　were　both　very　limited。　Food；　clothing；　and　lodging；　he　indeed　required；　but　he　did　not　so　much　as　think　of　the　delicacies；　by　which　the　satisfaction　of　those　wants　might　be　converted　into　pleasure；　and　still　less　of　the　artificial　desires；　induced　by　society；　which　in　their　gratification　become　new　sources　of　enjoyment。　The　Solitary's　aim　was　merely　to　amass；　that　he　might　afterwards　repose。　Before　him　at　no　great　distance；　was　a　point　in　the　accumulation　of　wealth；　beyond　which　it　would　have　been　foolishness　to　accumulate　more；　because　his　consumption　could　not　be　increased　proportionably。　But　the　wants　of　the　social　man　were　infinite；　because　the　society's　labour　offered　him　enjoyment　infinitely　varied。　Whatever　wealth　he　might　amass；　he　could　never　have　occasion　to　say　it　is　enough；　he　still　found　means　to　convert　it　into　pleasure；　and　to　imagine　at　least　that　he　applied　it　to　his　service。　　　　　Trade；　the　generic　name　given　to　the　total　mass　of　exchangers；　complicated　the　relation　required　to　subsist　between　production　and　consumption；　yet　far　from　diminishing；　it　increased　its　importance。　At　first；　every　one　procured　what　he　himself　intended　to　consume；　but　whe