political economy- 第6部分

confidence；　another　part　destined　to　be　consumed　very　slowly；　as　houses；　furniture；　carriages；　horses；　continues　in　the　hands　of　persons　whose　business　it　is　to　sell　the　use　of　it；　without　abandoning　the　property。　A　considerable　portion　of　the　wealth　of　opulent　nations　is　constantly　thrown　back　into　the　fields　destined　for　consumption；　but　although　it　still　gives　profit　to　its　holders；　it　has　ceased　to　augment　the　national　re…production。　　　　　The　annual　distribution　of　the　wealth；　annually　reproduced；　among　all　the　citizens　composing　the　nation；　constitutes　the　national　revenue。　It　consists　of　all　the　value；　by　which　the　re…production　surpasses　the　consumption　that　produced　it。　Thus　the　farmer；　after　deducting　from　his　crop　a　quantity　equal　to　the　seed　of　the　foregoing　year；　finds　remaining　the　part　which　is　to　support　his　family；　…　a　revenue　to　which　they　have　acquired　right　by　means　of　their　annual　labour；　the　part　which　is　to　support　his　workmen；　who　have　acquired　the　right　to　it　by　the　same　title；　the　part　with　which　he　is　to　satisfy　the　landlord；　who　has　acquired　right　to　this　revenue　by　the　original　improvement　of　the　soil；　now　no　longer　repeated；　and　lastly；　the　part　with　which　he　is　to　pay　the　interest　of　his　debts；　or　indemnify　himself　for　the　employment　of　his　own　capital　…　　a　revenue　to　which　he　has　acquired　right　by　the　primitive　labours　which　produced　his　capital。　　　　　So　likewise；　the　manufacturer　finds；　in　the　annual　produce　of　his　manufactory；　first　the　raw　material　employed；　secondly；　the　equivalent　of　his　own　wages；　and　those　of　his　workmen；　to　which　their　labour　alone　gives　them　right；　thirdly；　an　equivalent　for　the　annual　detriment　and　interest　of　his　fixed　capital；　to　which　revenue　he　or　the　proprietor　has　acquired　right　by　a　primitive　labour；　and　lastly；　an　equivalent　for　the　interest　of　his　circulating　capital；　which　has　been　produced　by　another　primitive　labour。　　　　　It　is　to　be　observed　that；　among　those　who　share　the　national　revenue；　some　acquire　a　new　right　in　it　every　year　by　a　new　labour；　others　have　previously　acquired　a　permanent　right　by　a　primitive　labour；　which　has　rendered　the　annual　labour　more　advantageous。　No　one　obtains　a　share　of　the　national　revenue；　except　in　virtue　of　what　he　himself　or　his　representatives　have　accomplished　to　produce　it；　unless；　as　we　shall　soon　see；　he　receives　it　at　second　hand；　from　its　primitive　proprietors；　by　way　of　compensation　for　services　done　to　them。　Now；　whoever　consumes　without　fulfilling　the　condition　which　alone　gives　him　right　to　the　revenue；　whoever　consumes　without　having　a　revenue；　or　beyond　what　he　has；　whoever　consumes　his　capital　in　place　of　revenue；　is　advancing　to　ruin；　and　a　nation　composed　of　such　consumers　is　advancing　to　ruin　likewise。　Revenue；　indeed；　is　that　quantity　by　which　the　national　wealth　is　increased　every　year；　and　which　accordingly　may　be　destroyed；　without　the　nation's　becoming　poorer；　but　the　nation　which；　without　re…production；　destroys　a　quantity　of　wealth；　superior　in　this　annual　increase；　destroys　the　very　means　by　which　it　would　have　acquired　an　equal　re…production　in　subsequent　years。　　　　　By　a　circular　concatenation；　in　which　every　effect　becomes　a　cause　in　its　turn；　production　gives　revenue；　revenue　furnishes　and　regulates　a　consumable　fund；　which　fund　again　causes　production　and　measures　it。　The　national　wealth　continues　to　augment；　and　the　state　to　prosper；　so　long　as　these　three　quantities；　which　are　proportional　to　each　other；　continue　to　augment　in　a　gradual　manner；　but　whenever　the　proportion　among　them　is　broken；　the　state　decays。　A　derangement　of　the　mutual　proportion　subsisting　among　production；　revenue；　and　consumption；　becomes　equally　prejudicial　to　the　nation；　whether　the　production　give　a　revenue　smaller　than　usual；　in　which　case　a　part　of　the　capital　must　pass　to　the　fund　of　consumption；　or　whether；　on　the　contrary；　this　consumption　diminish；　and　no　longer　call　for　a　fresh　production。　To　cause　distress　in　the　state；　it　is　enough　that　the　equilibrium　be　broken。　Production　may　diminish　when　habits　of　idleness　gain　footing　among　the　labouring　classes；　capital　may　diminish　when　prodigality　and　luxury　become　fashionable；　and　lastly；　consumption　may　diminish　from　causes　of　poverty；　unconnected　with　the　diminution　of　labour；　and　yet；　as　it　will　not　offer　employment　for　future　re…production；　it　must　diminish　labour　in　its　turn。　　　　　Thus　nations　incur　dangers　that　seem　incompatible：　they　fall　into　ruin　equally　by　spending　too　much；　and　by　spending　too　little。　A　nation　spends　too　much　whenever　it　exceeds　its　revenue；　because　it　cannot　do　so　except　by　encroaching　on　its　capital；　and　thus　diminishing　future　production；　it　then　does　what　the　solitary　cultivator　would　do　if　he　should　eat　the　corn　which　ought　to　be　secured　for　seed。　A　nation　spends　too　little；　whenever；　being　destitute　of　foreign　commerce；　it　does　not　consume　its　own　production；　or　when；　enjoying　foreign　commerce；　it　does　not　consume　the　excess　of　its　production　above　its　exportation；　for；　if　so；　it　soon　comes　into　the　condition　of　the　solitary　cultivator；　who　having　filled　all　his　granaries　far　beyond　the　probability　of　consumption；　would　be　obliged；　that　he　might　not　work　in　vain；　partly　to　abandon　his　cultivation　of　the　ground。　　　　　The　nation　does　not　indeed　spend　all　that　it　consumes；　the　name　expenditure；　in　such　a　case；　can　properly　be　given　to　that　consumption　only　which　produces　nothing；　while　that　part　of　the　consumption　which　represents　the　wages　of　productive　workmen；　is　an　employment　of　funds；　not　an　expenditure。　Thus；　the　nation；　when　it　forms　manufacturing　establishments；　does　not　diminish　its　consumption；　it　consumes；　in　a　productive　manner；　what　it　formerly　consumed　unproductively。　Still；　however；　this　employment　of　the　national　produce　in　giving　movement　to　new　labour；　though　it　does　not　destroy　the　balance　between　production　and　consumption；　renders　it　much　more　complex。　The　new　produce　thus　obtained　must；　at　last；　find　a　consumer；　and　though　it　may　be　generally　affirmed；　that　to　increase　the　labour　is　to　increase　the　wealth；　and　with　it　in　a　similar　proportion　the　revenue　and　the　consumption；　still　it　is　any　thing　but　proved；　that　by　too　rapid　an　increase　of　its　labour　a　nation　may　not　altogether　deviate　from　the　proper　rate　of　consumption；　and　thus　ruin　itself　by　economy　as　well　as　prodigality。　Happily；　in　most　cases；　the　increase　of　capital；　of　revenue　and　of　consumption；　requires　no　superintendence；　they　proceed；　of　their　own　accord；　with　an　equal　pace；　and　when　one　of　them；　at　any　time；　happens　to　pass　the　others　for　an　instant；　foreign　commerce　is　almost　always　ready　to　restore　the　equilibrium。　　　　　We　have　designedly　carried　on　our　history　of　the　formation　and　progress　of　wealth　thus　far；　without　mentioning　a　circulating　medium；　to　show；　that；　in　fact；　such　an　instrument　is　not　necessary　for　its　development。　A　circulating　medium　did　not　create　wealth；　but　it　simplified　all　the　relations；　and　facilitated　all　the　transactions　of　commerce；　it　gave　to　each　the　means　of　finding　sooner　what　suited　him　best；　and　thus　presenting　an　advantage　to　every　one；　it　still　further　increased　the　wealth；　which　was　already　increasing　without　it。　　　　　The　precious　metals　are　one　of　the　numerous　values　produced　by　the　labour　of　man；　and　applicable　to　his　use。　It　was　soon　discovered　that　they；　more　than　any　other　species　of　riches；　possessed　the　property　of　being　preserved　without　alteration　for　any　length　of　time；　and　the　no　less　valuable　one　of　uniting　easily　into　a　single　whole；　after　being　divided　almost　infinitely。　The　two　halves　of　a　piece　of　cloth；　of　a　fleece；　and　still　less　of　an　ox；　…　though　these　are　supposed　to　have　once　been　employed　as　money；　…　　were　not　worth　the　whole；　but　the　two　halves；　the　four　quarters　of　a　pound　of　gold　are　always；　and　will　be；　a　pound　of　gold；　however　long　they　may　be　kept。　As　the　first　exchange　of　which　men　feel　the　need；　is　that　which　enables　them　to　preserve　the　fruit　of　their　labour　for　a　future　season；　every　one　became　eager　to　get　precious　metals　in　exchange　for　his　commodity；　whatever　it　might　be；　not　because　he　at　all　intended　to　use　those　metals　himself；　but　because　he　was　sure　of　being　able　to　exchange　them　at　any　time　afterwards；　in　the　same　manner；　and　for　the　same　reason；　against　whatever　article　he　might　then　need。　From　that　time　the　precious　metals　began　to　he　sought　after；　not　that　they　might　be　employed　in　the　use　of　man；　as　ornaments　or　utensils；　but　that　they　might　be　accumulated；　at　first；　as　representing　every　species　of　wealth；　and　then　that　they　might　be　used　in　commerce；　as　the　means　of　facilitating　all　kinds　of　exchange。　　　　　Gold　dust；　in　its　primitive　state；　continues；　even　now；　to　be　the　medium　of　exchange　among　the　African　nations。　But　when　once　the　value　of　gold　comes　to　be　universally　admitted；　there　remains　but　a　single　step；　much　easier　and　far　less　important；　till　it　be　converted　into　coin；　which　warrants；　by　a　legal　stamp；　the　weight　and　the　fineness　of　every　particle　of　the　precious　metals　employed　in　circulation。　　　　　The　invention　of　money　gave　quite　a　new　activity　to　exchange。　Whoever　happened　to　possess　any　superfluity　had　no　longer　occasion　to　seek　the　article　likely　to　be　needed　in　time　to　come。　He　no　longer　delayed　selling　his　corn　till　he　should　meet　the　oil…merchant　or　the　wool…dealer　to　offer　them　the　thing　they　wanted；　he　reckoned　it　enough　to　find　money；　being　certain　that　for　this　he　could　always　obtain　any　required　commodity。　The　buyer；　too；　on　his　side；　needed　not　to　study　what　would　suit　the　seller：　money　was　always　sure　to　satisfy　all　his　demands。　Before　the　invention　of　a　circulating　medium；　a　fortunate　concurrence　of　conveniences　was　requisite　for　an　exchange：　whereas　after　this　invention；　there　could　scarcely　be　a　buyer　that　did　not　find　a　seller；　or　a　seller　who　did　not　find　a　buyer。　　　　　As　exchanges；　and　afterwards　sales　and　purchases；　were　voluntary；　it　might　be　inferred　that　all　values　were　given　for　values　completely　equal。　It　is　more　correct；　however；　to　say；　that　bargains　were　never　made　without　advantages　to　both　parties。　The　seller　found　a　profit　in　selling；　the　buyer　in　buying。　The　one　drew　more　advantages　from　the　money　which　he　received；　than　he　would　have　done　from　h