say： 〃This is my product； this will I keep to myself。〃 Between
the commencement of any joint operation； such as that of making
cloth； and the division of its product among the different
persons whose combined exertions have produced it； the judgment
of men must intervene several times； and the question is； how
much of this joint product should go to each of the individuals
whose united labourers produce it？
I know no way of deciding this but by leaving it to be
settled by the unfettered judgments of the labourers themselves。
If all kinds of labour were perfectly free； if no unfounded
prejudice invested some parts； and perhaps the least useful； of
the social task with great honour； while other parts are very
improperly branded with disgrace； there would be no difficulty on
this point； and the wages of individual labour would be justly
settled by what Dr Smith calls the 〃higgling of the market。〃
Unfortunately； labour is not； in general； free； and；
unfortunately there are a number of prejudices which decree very
different rewards to different species of labour from those which
each of them merits。
Unfortunately； also； there is； I think； in general； a
disposition to restrict the term labour to the operation of the
hands。 But if it should be said that the skill of the practised
labourer is a mere mechanical sort of thing； nobody will deny
that the labour by which he acquired that skill was a mental
exertion。 The exercise of that skill also； as it seems to me；
requiring the constant application of judgment； depends much more
on a mental than on a bodily acquirement。 Probably the mere
capacity of muscular exertion is as great； or greater； among a
tribe of Indians as among the most productive Europeans； and the
superior productive power of Europeans； and of one nation over
another； arise from the different nature of their fixed capital。
But I have shown that the greater efficacy of fixed capital
depends on the skill of the labourer； so that we come to the
conclusion that not mere labour； but mental skill； or the mode in
which labour is directed； determines its productive powers。 I
therefore would caution my fellow labourers not to limit the term
labour to the operations of the hands。
Before many of our most useful machines and instruments
could be invented； a vast deal of knowledge gathered in the
progress of the world by many generations was necessary。 At
present also a great number of persons possessed of different
kinds of knowledge and skill must combine and cooperate； although
they have never entered into any express contract for this
purpose； before many of our most powerful machines can be
completed and before thy can be used。 The labour of the
draughtsman is as necessary to construct a ship as the labour of
the man who fastens her planks together。 The labour of the
engineer； who 〃in his mind's eye〃 sees the effect of every
contrivance； and who adapts the parts of a complicated machine to
each other； is as necessary to the completion of that machine as
the man who casts or fits any part of it； without being sensible
of the purpose for which the whole is to serve。 In like manner
the labour and the knowledge of many different persons must be
combined before almost any product intended for consumption can
be brought to market。 The knowledge and skill of the master
manufacturer； or of the man who plans and arranges a productive
operation； who must know the state of the markets and the
qualities of different materials； and who has some tact in buying
and selling； are just as necessary for the complete success of
any complicated operation as the skill of the workmen whose hands
actually alter the shape and fashion of these materials。 Far be
it； therefore； from the manual labourer； while he claims the
reward due to his own productive powers； to deny its appropriate
reward to any other species of labour； whether it be of the head
or the hands。 The labour and skill of the contriver； or of the
man who arranges an adapts a whole； are as necessary as the
labour and skill of him who executes only a part； and they must
be paid accordingly。
I must； however； add that it is doubtful whether one species
of labour is more valuable than another； certainly it is not more
necessary。 But because those who have been masters。 Planners；
contrivers； etc。； have in general also been capitalists； and have
also had a command over the labour of those who have worked with
their hands； their labour has been paid as much too high as
common labour has been under paid。 The wages of the master；
employer or contriver has been blended with the profit of the
capitalists； and he may probably be still disposed to claim the
whole as only the proper reward of his exertions。 On the other
hand； manual labourers； oppressed by the capitalist； have never
been paid high enough； and even now are more disposed to estimate
their own deserts rather by what they have hitherto received than
by what they produce。 This sort of prejudice makes it； and will
long make it； difficult even for labourers themselves to
apportion with justice the social reward or wages of each
individual labourer。 No statesman can accomplish this； nor ought
the labourers to allow any statesman to interfere in it。 The
labour is theirs； the produce ought to be theirs； and they alone
ought to decide how much each deserves of the produce all。 While
each labourer claims his own reward； let him cheerfully allow the
just claims of every other labourer； but let him never assent to
the strange doctrine that the food he eats and the instruments he
uses； which are the work of his own hands； become endowed； by
merely changing proprietors； with productive power greater than
his； and that the owner of them is entitled to a more abundant
reward than the labour； skill and knowledge which produce and use
them。
Masters； it is evident； are labourers as well as their
journeymen。 In this character their interest is precisely the
same as that of their men。 But they are also either capitalist；
or the agents of the capitalist； and in this respect their
interest is decidedly opposed to the interest of their workmen。
As the contrivers and enterprising undertakers of new works； they
may be called employers as well as labourers； and they deserve
the respect of the labourer。 As capitalist； and as the agents of
he capitalist； they are merely middlemen； oppressing the
labourer； and deserving of anything but his respect。 The labourer
should know and bear this in mind。 Other people should also
remember it； for it is indispensable to correct reasoning to
distinguish between these two characters of all masters。 If by
combining the journeymen were to drive masters； who are a useful
class of labourers； out of the country； if they were to force
abroad the skill and ingenuity which contrive； severing them from
the hands which execute； they would do themselves and the
remaining inhabitants considerable mischief。 If； on the contrary；
by combining they merely incapacitate the masters from obtaining
any profit on their capital； and merely prevent them from
completing the engagements they have contracted with the
capitalist； they will do themselves and the country incalculable
service。 They may reduce or destroy altogether the profit of the
idle capitalist and from the manner in which capitalists have
treated labourers； even within our own recollection； they have no
claim on the gratitude of the labourer but they will augment
the wages and rewards of industry； and will give to genius and
skill their due share of the national produce。 They will also
increase prodigiously the productive power of the country by
increasing the number of skilled labourers。 The most successful
and widest spread possible combination to obtain an augmentation
of wages would have no other injurious effect than to reduce the
incomes of those who live on profit and interest； and who have no
just claim but custom to any share of the national produce。
It has indeed been said by some sapient legislators； both
Lords and Commoners； that the journeymen will do themselves
incalculable mischief by driving capital out of the country； and
one of the reasons urged for the new law was that it would
prevent the journeymen injuring themselves。 Whenever the devil
wants to do mischief he assumes the garb of holiness； and
whenever a certain class of persons wish to commit a more than
usually flagrant violation of justice it is always done in the
name of humanity。 If the labourers are disposed blindly to injure
themselves I see no reason for the legislature interfering to
prevent them； except as a farmer watches over the health of his
cattle； or a West India planter looks after the negroes because
they are his property； and bring him a large profit。 The
journeymen； however； know their own interest better than it is
known to the legislator； and they would be all the richer if
there were not an idle capitalist in the country。 I shall not
enter into any investigation of the origin of this opinion that
the workmen will injure themselves by driving away capital； but
it would not be difficult to show that it springs from the false
theory I have opposed； and that it is based on a narrow
experience。 Because there are a few instances of political and
religious persecution； driving both masters and journeymen； or a
large quantity of national stock of skilled labour； from
different countries； greatly； I admit； to the injury； and justly
so； of the remaining inhabitants who permitted or practised this
persecution； it has been asserted that this injury was caused by
the banishment； not of the men but of the capital； and it being；
therefore； now concluded that the proceedings of the workmen will
in like manner banish capital from this country it has been
affirmed that they will injure both themselves and the rest of
the inhabitants。 But they carry on neither political nor
religious persecution； and it is somewhat preposterous in the
race of politicians； by way； perhaps； of throwing a veil over
their own crimes； to attribute to the actions of the workmen the
same consequences as have been produced by some of the absurd and
cruel proceedi