the psychology of revolution- 第21部分

customs；　and　each　of　which　paid　different　imposts。　　Internal

customs…houses　separated　them。　　The　unity　of　France　was　thus

somewhat　artificial。　　It　represented　an　aggregate　of　various

countries　which　the　repeated　efforts　of　the　kings；　including

Louis　XIV。；　had　not　succeeded　in　wholly　unifying。　　The　most

useful　effect　of　the　Revolution　was　this　very　unification。



To　such　material　divisions　were　added　social　divisions

constituted　by　different　classesnobles；　clergy；　and　the　Third

Estate；　whose　rigid　barriers　could　only　with　the　utmost

difficulty　be　crossed。



Regarding　the　division　of　the　classes　as　one　of　its　sources　of

power；　the　ancien　regime　had　rigorously　maintained　that

division。　　This　became　the　principal　cause　of　the　hatreds　which

the　system　inspired。　　Much　of　the　violence　of　the　triumphant

bourgeoisie　represented　vengeance　for　a　long　past　of　disdain

and　oppression。　　The　wounds　of　self…love　are　the　most　difficult

of　all　to　forget。　　The　Third　Estate　had　suffered　many　such

wounds。　　At　a　meeting　of　the　States　General　in　1614；　at　which　its

representatives　were　obliged　to　remain　bareheaded　on　their　knees；

one　member　of　the　Third　Estate　having　dared　to　say　that　the　three

orders　were　like　three　brothers；　the　spokesman　of　the　nobles

replied　‘‘that　there　was　no　fraternity　between　it　and　the　Third；

that　the　nobles　did　not　wish　the　children　of　cobblers　and

tanners　to　call　them　their　brothers。''



Despite　the　march　of　enlightenment　the　nobles　and　the　clergy

obstinately　preserved　their　privileges　and　their　demands；　no

longer　justifiable　now　that　these　classes　had　ceased　to　render

services。



Kept　from　the　exercise　of　public　functions　by　the　royal　power；

which　distrusted　them；　and　progressively　replaced　by　a

bourgeoisie　which　was　more　and　more　learned　and　capable；　the

social　role　of　nobility　and　clergy　was　only　an　empty　show。　

This　point　has　been　luminously　expounded　by　Taine：



‘‘Since　the　nobility；　having　lost　its　special　capacity；　and　the

Third　Estate；　having　acquired　general　capacity；　were　now　on　a

level　in　respect　of　education　and　aptitudes；　the　inequality　which

divided　them　had　become　hurtful　and　useless。　　Instituted　by

custom；　it　was　no　longer　ratified　by　the　consciousness；　and　the

Third　Estate　was　with　reason　angered　by　privileges　which　nothing

justified；　neither　the　capacity　of　the　nobles　nor　the　incapacity

of　the　bourgeoisie。''



By　reason　of　the　rigidity　of　castes　established　by　a　long　past　we

cannot　see　what　could　have　persuaded　the　nobles　and　the　clergy　to

renounce　their　privileges。　　Certainly　they　did　finally　abandon

them　one　memorable　evening；　when　events　forced　them　to　do　so；　but

then　it　was　too　late；　and　the　Revolution；　unchained；　was　pursuing

its　course。



It　is　certain　that　modern　progress　would　successively　have

established　all　that　the　Revolution　effectedthe　equality　of

citizens　before　the　law；　the　suppression　of　the　privileges　of

birth；　&c。　　Despite　the　conservative　spirit　of　the　Latins；　these

things　would　have　been　won；　as　they　were　by　the　majority

of　the　peoples。　　We　might　in　this　manner　have　been　saved　twenty

years　of　warfare　and　devastation；　but　we　must　have　had　a

different　mental　constitution；　and；　above　all；　different

statesmen。



The　profound　hostility　of　the　bourgeoisie　against　the　classes

maintained　above　it　by　tradition　was　one　of　the　great　factors　of

the　Revolution；　and　perfectly　explains　why；　after　its　triumph；

the　first　class　despoiled　the　vanquished　of　their　wealth。　　They

behaved　as　conquerorslike　William　the　Conqueror；　who；　after　the

conquest　of　England；　distributed　the　soil　among　his　soldiers。



But　although　the　bourgeoisie　detested　the　nobility　they　had　no

hatred　for　royalty；　and　did　not　regard　it　as　revocable。　　The

maladdress　of　the　king　and　his　appeals　to　foreign　powers　only

very　gradually　made　him　unpopular。



The　first　Assembly　never　dreamed　of　founding　a　republic。　

Extremely　royalist；　in　fact；　it　thought　simply　to　substitute　a

constitutional　for　an　absolute　monarchy。　　Only　the　consciousness

of　its　increasing　power　exasperated　it　against　the　resistance　of

the　king；　but　it　dared　not　overthrow　him。





3。　　Life　under　the　Ancien　Regime。





It　is　difficult　to　form　a　very　clear　idea　of　life　under　the

ancien　regime；　and；　above　all；　of　the　real　situation　of　the

peasants。



The　writers　who　defend　the　Revolution　as　theologians　defend

religious　dogmas　draw　such　gloomy　pictures　of　the　existence　of

the　peasants　under　the　ancien　regime　that　we　ask　ourselves

how　it　was　that　all　these　unhappy　creatures　had　not　died

of　hunger　long　before。　　A　good　example　of　this　style　of　writing

may　be　found　in　a　book　by　M。　A。　Rambaud；　formerly　professor　at

the　Sorbonne；　published　under　the　title　History　of　the　French

Revolution。　　One　notices　especially　an　engraving　bearing　the

legend；　Poverty　of　Peasants　under　Louis　XIV。　　In　the　foreground

a　man　is　fighting　some　dogs　for　some　bones；　which　for　that　matter

are　already　quite　fleshless。　　Beside　him　a　wretched　fellow　is

twisting　himself　and　compressing　his　stomach。　　Farther　back　a

woman　lying　on　the　ground　is　eating　grass。　　At　the　back　of　the

landscape　figures　of　which　one　cannot　say　whether　they　are

corpses　or　persons　starving　are　also　stretched　on　the　soil。　　As

an　example　of　the　administration　of　the　ancien　regime　the

same　author　assures　us　that　‘‘a　place　in　the　police　cost　300

livres　and　brought　in　400；000。''　　Such　figures　surely　indicate　a

great　disinterestedness　on　the　part　of　those　who　sold　such

productive　employment！　　He　also　informs　us　‘‘that　it　cost　only

120　livres　to　get　people　arrested；''　and　that　‘‘under　Louis　XV。

more　than　150；000　lettres　de　cachet　were　distributed。''



The　majority　of　books　dealing　with　the　Revolution　are　conceived

with　as　little　impartiality　and　critical　spirit；　which　is　one

reason　why　this　period　is　really　so　little　known　to　us。



Certainly　there　is　no　lack　of　documents；　but　they　are　absolutely

contradictory。　　To　the　celebrated　description　of　La　Bruyere　we

may　oppose　the　enthusiastic　picture　drawn　by　the　English

traveller　Young　of　the　prosperous　condition　of　the　peasants　of

some　of　the　French　provinces。



Were　they　really　crushed　by　taxation；　and　did　they；　as　has　been

stated；　pay　four…fifths　of　their　revenue　instead　of　a　fifth　as

to…day？　　Impossible　to　say　with　certainty。　　One　capital　fact；

however；　seems　to　prove　that　under　the　ancien　regime　the

situation　of　the　inhabitants　of　the　rural　districts　could　not

have　been　so　very　wretched；　since　it　seems　established　that　more

than　a　third　of　the　soil　had　been　bought　by　peasants。



We　are　better　informed　as　to　the　financial　system。　　It　was　very

oppressive　and　extremely　complicated。　　The　budgets　usually　showed

deficits；　and　the　imposts　of　all　kinds　were　raised　by　tyrannical

farmers…general。　　At　the　very　moment　of　the　Revolution　this

condition　of　the　finances　became　the　cause　of　universal

discontent；　which　is　expressed　in　the　cahiers　of　the　States

General。　　Let　us　remark　that　these　cahiers　did　not　represent　a

previous　state　of　affairs；　but　an　actual　condition　due　to　a

crisis　of　poverty　produced　by　the　bad　harvest　of　1788　and　the

hard　winter　of　1789。　　What　would　these　cahiers　have　told　us　had

they　been　written　ten　years　earlier？



Despite　these　unfavourable　circumstances　the　cahiers　contained

no　revolutionary　ideas。　　The　most　advanced　merely　asked　that

taxes　should　be　imposed　only　with　the　consent　of　the　States

General　and　paid　by　all　alike。　　The　same　cahiers　sometimes

expressed　a　wish　that　the　power　of　the　king　should　be　limited　by

a　Constitution　defining　his　rights　and　those　of　the　nation。　　If

these　wishes　had　been　granted　a　constitutional　monarchy　could

very　easily　have　been　substituted　for　the　absolute　monarchy；　and

the　Revolution　would　probably　have　been　avoided。



Unhappily；　the　nobility　and　the　clergy　were　too　strong　and　Louis

XVI。　too　weak　for　such　a　solution　to　be　possible。



Moreover；　it　would　have　been　rendered　extremely　difficult　by　the

demands　of　the　bourgeoisie；　who　claimed　to　substitute　themselves

for　the　nobles；　and　were　the　real　authors　of　the　Revolution。　　The

movement　started　by　the　middle　classes　rapidly　exceeded　their

hopes；　needs；　and　aspirations。　　They　had　claimed　equality　for

their　own　profit；　but　the　people　also　demanded　equality。　　The

Revolution　thus　finally　became　the　popular　government　which　it

was　not　and　had　no　intention　of　becoming　at　the　outset。





4。　　Evolution　of　Monarchical　Feeling　during　the　Revolution。





Despite　the　slow　evolution　of　the　affective　elements；　it　is

certain　that　during　the　Revolution　the　sentiments；　not　of　the

people　only；　but　also　of　the　revolutionary　Assemblies　with　regard

to　the　monarchy；　underwent　a　very　rapid　change。　　Between　the

moment　when　the　legislators　of　the　first　Assembly　surrounded

Louis　XVI。　with　respect　and　the　moment　when　his　head　was　cut　off

a　very　few　years　had　elapsed。



These　changes；　superficial　rather　than　profound；　were　in　reality

a　mere　transposition　of　sentiments　of　the　same　order。　　The　love

which　the　men　of　this　period　professed　for　the　king　was

transferred　to　the　new　Government　which　had　inherited　his　power。　

The　mechanism　of　such　a　transfer　may　easily　be　demonstrated。



Under　the　ancien　regime；　the　sovereign；　holding　his　power　by

Divine　right；　was　for　this　reason　invested　with　a　kind　of

supernatural　power。　　His　people　looked　up　to　him　from　every

corner　of　the　country。



This　mystic　belief　in　the　absolute　power　of　royalty　was　shattered

only　when　repeated　experience　proved　that　the　power　attributed　to

the　adored　being　was　fictitious。　　He　then　lost　his　prestige。　

Now；　when　prestige　is　lost　the　crowd　will　not　forgive　the　fallen

idol　for　deluding　them；　and　seek　anew　the　idol　without　which　they

cannot　exist。



From　the　outset　of　the　Revolution　numerous　facts；　which　were

daily　repeated；　revealed　to