gth than that which we attribute to the nature of women。 At any rate； you might sooner expect a stone image to find voice than one of those Spartan youths； to divert the eyes of some bronze stature were less difficult。 And as to quiet bearing； no bride ever stepped in bridal bower＇6＇ with more natural modesty。 Note them when they have reached the public table。＇7＇ The plainest answer to the question askedthat is all you need expect to hear from their lips。
＇4＇ See Cic。 〃pro Coelio；〃 5。
＇5＇ See Plat。 〃Charmid。〃 159 B； Jowett； 〃Plato；〃 I。 15。
＇6＇ Longinus； ｛peri ups｝； iv。 4； reading ｛ophthalmois｝ for ｛thalamois｝； says： 〃Yet why speak of Timaeus； when even men like Xenophon and Plato； the very demigods of literature； though they had sat at the feet of Socrates； sometimes forget themselves in the pursuit of such pretty conceits？ The former in his account of the Spartan Polity has these words： 'Their voice you would no more hear； than if they were of marble； their gaze is as immovable as if they were cast in bronze。 You would deem them more modest than the very maidens in their eyes。' To speak of the pupils of the eyes as modest maidens was a piece of absurdity becoming Amphicrates rather than Xenophon； and then what a strange notion to suppose that modesty is always without exception； expressed in the eye！〃H。 L。 Howell； 〃Longinus；〃 p。 8。 See 〃Spectator；〃 No。 354。
＇7＇ See Paus。 VII。 i。 8； the ｛phidition｝ or ｛philition｝； 〃Hell。〃 V。 iv。 28。
IV
But if he was thus careful in the education of the stripling；＇1＇ the Spartan lawgiver showed a still greater anxiety in dealing with those who had reached the prime of opening manhood； considering their immense importance to the city in the scale of good； if only they proved themselves the men they should be。 He had only to look around to see what wherever the spirit of emulation＇2＇ is most deeply seated； there； too； their choruses and gymnastic contests will present alike a far higher charm to eye and ear。 And on the same principle he persuaded himself that he needed only to confront＇3＇ his youthful warriors in the strife of valour； and with like result。 They also； in their degree； might be expected to attain to some unknown height of manly virtue。
＇1＇ See 〃Hell。〃 V。 iv。 32。
＇2＇ Cf。 〃Cyrop。〃 II。 i。 22。
＇3＇ Or； 〃pit face to face。〃
What method he adopted to engage these combatants I will now explain。 It is on this wise。 Their ephors select three men out of the whole body of the citizens in the prime of life。 These three are named Hippagretai； or masters of the horse。 Each of these selects one hundred others； being bound to explain for what reason he prefers in honour these and disapproves of those。 The result is that those who fail to obtain the distinction are now at open war； not only with those who rejected them； but with those who were chosen in their stead； and they keep ever a jealous eye on one another to detect some slip of conduct contrary to the high code of honour there held customary。 And so is set on foot that strife； in truest sense acceptable to heaven； and for the purposes of state most politic。 It is a strife in which not only is the pattern of a brave man's conduct fully set forth； but where； too； each against other and in separate camps； the rival parties train for victory。 One day the superiority shall be theirs； or； in the day of need； one and all to the last man； they will be ready to aid the fatherland with all their strength。
Necessity； moreover； is laid upon them to study a good habit of the body； coming as they do to blows with their fists for very strife's sake whenever they meet。 Albeit； any one present has a right to separate the combatants； and； if obedience is not shown to the peacemaker； the Pastor of youth＇4＇ hales the delinquent before the ephors； and the ephors inflict heavy damages； since they will have it plainly understood that rage must never override obedience to law。
＇4＇ Lit。 〃the Paidonomos。〃
With regard to those who have already passed＇5＇ the vigour of early manhood； and on whom the highest magistracies henceforth devolve； there is a like contrast。 In Hellas generally we find that at this age the need of further attention to physical strength is removed； although the imposition of military service continues。 But Lycurgus made it customary for that section of his citizens to regard hunting as the highest honour suited to their age； albeit； not to the exclusion of any public duty。＇6＇ And his aim was that they might be equally able to undergo the fatigues of war with those in the prime of early manhood。
＇5＇ Probably the ｛agathoergoi｝； technically so called。 See Herod。 i。 67； Schneider； ap。 Dindorf。
＇6＇ Lit。 〃save only if some public duty intervened。〃 See 〃Cyrop。〃 I。 ii。
V
The above is a fairly exhaustive statement of the institutions traceable to the legislation of Lycurgus in connection with the successive stages＇1＇ of a citizen's life。 It remains that I should endeavour to describe the style of living which he established for the whole body； irrespective of age。 It will be understood that； when Lycurgus first came to deal with the question； the Spartans like the rest of the Hellenes； used to mess privately at home。 Tracing more than half the current misdemeanours to this custom；＇2＇ he was determined to drag his people out of holes and corners into the broad daylight； and so he invented the public mess…rooms。 Whereby he expected at any rate to minimise the transgression of orders。
＇1＇ Lit。 〃with each age。〃； see Plut。 〃Lycurg。〃 25； Hesychius； ｛s。 u。 irinies｝； 〃Hell。〃 VI。 iv。 17； V。 iv。 13。
＇2＇ Reading after Cobet； ｛en touto｝。
As to food；＇3＇ his ordinance allowed them so much as； while not inducing repletion； should guard them from actual want。 And； in fact； there are many exceptional＇4＇ dishes in the shape of game supplied from the hunting field。 Or； as a substitute for these； rich men will occasionally garnish the feast with wheaten loaves。 So that from beginning to end； till the mess breaks up； the common board is never stinted for viands； nor yet extravagantly furnished。
＇3＇ See Plut。 〃Lycurg。〃 12 （Clough； i。 97）。
＇4＇ ｛paraloga｝； i。e。 unexpected dishes； technically named ｛epaikla｝ （hors d'oeuvres）； as we learn from Athenaeus； iv。 140； 141。
So also in the matter of drink。 Whilst putting a stop to all unnecessary potations； detrimental alike to a firm brain and a steady gait；＇5＇ he left them free to quench thirst when nature dictated＇6＇； a method which would at once add to the pleasure whilst it diminished the danger of drinking。 And indeed one may fairly ask how； on such a system of common meals； it would be possible for any one to ruin either himself or his family either through gluttony or wine…bibbing。
＇5＇ Or； 〃apt to render brain and body alike unsteady。〃
＇6＇ See 〃Agesilaus〃； also 〃Mem。〃 and 〃Cyrop。〃
This too must be borne in mind； that in other states equals in age；＇7＇ for the most part； associate together； and such an atmosphere is little conducive to modesty。＇8＇ Whereas in Sparta Lycurgus was careful so to blend the ages＇9＇ that the younger men must benefit largely by the experience of the elderan education in itself； and the more so since by custom of the country conversation at the common meal has reference to the honourable acts which this man or that man may have performed in relation to the state。 The scene； in fact； but little lends itself to the intrusion of violence or drunken riot； ugly speech and ugly deeds alike are out of place。 Amongst other good results obtained through this out…door system of meals may be mentioned these： There is the necessity of walking home when the meal is over； and a consequent anxiety not to be caught tripping under the influence of wine； since they all know of course that the supper…table must be presently abandoned；＇10＇ and that they must move as freely in the dark as in the day； even the help of a torch＇11＇ to guide the steps being forbidden to all on active service。
＇7＇ Cf。 Plat。 〃Phaedr。〃 240 C； ｛elix eklika terpei｝； 〃Equals delight in equals。〃
＇8＇ Or； 〃these gatherings for the most part consist of equals in age （young fellows）； in whose society the virtue of modesty is least likely to display itself。〃
＇9＇ See Plut。 〃Lycurg。〃 12 （Clough； i。 98）。
＇10＇ Or； 〃that they are not going to stay all night where they have supped。〃
＇11＇ See Plut。 〃Lycurg。〃 12 （Clough； i。 99）。
In connection with this matter； Lycurgus had not failed to observe the effect of equal amounts of food on different persons。 The hardworking man has a good complexion； his muscles are well fed； he is robust and strong。 The man who abstains from work； on the other hand； may be detected by his miserable appearance； he is blotched and puffy； and devoid of strength。 This observation； I say； was not wasted on him。 On the contrary； turning it over in his mind that any one who chooses； as a matter of private judgment； to devote himself to toil may hope to present a very creditable appearance physically； he enjoined upon the eldest for the time being in every gymnasium to see to it that the labours of the class were proportional to the meats。＇12＇ And to my mind he was not out of his reckoning in this matter more than elsehwere。 At any rate； it would be hard to discover a healthier or more completely developed human being； physically speaking； than the Spartan。 Their gymnastic training； in fact； makes demands alike on the legs and arms and neck；＇13＇ etc。； simultaneously。
＇12＇ I。e。 〃not inferior in excellence to the diet which they enjoyed。〃 The reading here adopted I owe to Dr。 Arnold Hug； ｛os me ponous auton elattous ton sition gignesthai｝。
＇13＇ See Plat。 〃Laws；〃 vii。 796 A； Jowett； 〃Plato；〃 v。 p。 365； Xen。 〃Symp。〃 ii。 7； Plut。 〃Lycurg。〃 19。
VI
There are other points in which this legislator's views run counter to those commonly accepted。 Thus： in other states the individual citizen is master over his own children； domestics；＇1＇ goods and chattels； and belongings generally； but Lycurgus； whose aim was to secure to all the citizens a considerable share in one another's goods without mutual injury； enacted that each one should have an equal power of his n