ion of peonagea provision which was more honored in； the breach than in the observance。
CHAPTER VII。 GREATER STATES AND LESSER
During the half century that had elapsed since 1826； the nations of Hispanic America had passed through dark ages。 Their evolution had always been accompanied by growing pains and had at times been arrested altogether or unduly hastened by harsh injections of radicalism。 It was not an orderly development through gradual modifications in the social and economic structure； but rather a fitful progress now assisted and now retarded by the arbitrary deeds of men of action； good and bad； who had seized power。 Dictators； however； steadily decreased in number and gave place often to presidential autocrats who were continued in office by constant reelection and who were imbued with modern ideas。 In 1876 these Hispanic nations stood on the threshold of a new era。 Some were destined to advance rapidly beyond it； others； to move slowly onward； and a few to make little or no progress。
The most remarkable feature in the new era was the rise of four statesMexico； Brazil； Argentina； and Chileto a position of eminence among their fellows。 Extent of territory； development of natural resources； the character of the inhabitants and the increase of their numbers； and the amount of popular intelligence and prosperity； all contributed to this end。 Each of the four nations belonged to a fairly well…defined historical and geographical group in southern North America； and in eastern and western South America； respectively。 In the first group were Mexico； the republics of Central America； and the island countries of the Caribbean； in the second； Brazil； Argentina； Uruguay； and Paraguay； and in the third； Chile； Peru； and Bolivia。 In a fourth group were Ecuador； Colombia； and Venezuela。
When the President of Mexico proceeded； in 1876； to violate the constitution by securing his reelection； the people were prepared by their earlier experiences and by the rule of Juarez to defend their constitutional rights。 A widespread rebellion headed by Diaz broke out。 In the so…called 〃Plan of Tuxtepec〃 the revolutionists declared themselves in favor of the principle of absolutely no reelection。 Meantime the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court handed down a decision that the action of the Congress in sustaining the President was illegal； since in reality no elections had been held because of the abstention of voters and the seizure of the polls by revolutionists or government forces。 〃Above the constitution； nothing； above the constitution； no one；〃 he declared。 But as this assumption of a power of judgment on matters of purely political concern was equally a violation of the constitution and concealed； besides； an attempt to make the Chief Justice President； Diaz and his followers drove both of the pretenders out。 Then in 1876 he managed to bring about his own election instead。
Porfirio Diaz was a soldier who had seen active service in nearly every important campaign since the war with the United States。 Often himself in revolt against presidents； legal and illegal； Diaz was vastly more than an ordinary partisan chieftain。 Schooled by a long experience； he had come to appreciate the fact that what Mexico required for its national development was freedom from internal disorders and a fair chance for recuperation。 Justice； order； and prosperity； he felt； could be assured only by imposing upon the country the heavy weight of an iron hand。 Foreign capital must be invested in Mexico and then protected； immigration must be encouraged； and other material； moral； and intellectual aid of all sorts must be drawn from abroad for the upbuilding of the nation。
To effect such a transformation in a land so tormented and impoverished as Mexicoa country which； within the span of fifty…five years had lived under two 〃emperors；〃 and some thirty…six presidents； nine 〃provisional presidents；〃 ten dictators； twelve 〃regents；〃 and five 〃supreme councilors〃required indeed a masterful intelligence and a masterful authority。 Porfirio Diaz possessed and exercised both。 He was； in fact； just the man for the times。 An able administrator； stern and severe but just； rather reserved in manner and guarded in utterance； shrewd in the selection of associates； and singularly successful in his dealings with foreigners； he entered upon a 〃presidential reign〃 of thirty…five years broken by but one intermission of fourwhich brought Mexico out upon the highway to new national life。
Under the stable and efficient rulership of Diaz； 〃plans；〃 〃pronunciamentos；〃 〃revolutions；〃 and similar devices of professional trouble makers； had short shrift。 Whenever an uprising started； it was promptly quelled； either by a well…disciplined army or by the rurales； a mounted police made up to some extent of former bandits to whom the President gave the choice of police service or of sharp punishment for their crimes。 Order； in fact； was not always maintained； nor was justice always meted out； by recourse to judges and courts。 Instead； a novel kind of lynch law was invoked。 The name it bore was the ley fuga； or 〃flight law；〃 in accordance with which malefactors or political suspects taken by government agents from one locality to another； on the excuse of securing readier justice； were given by their captors a pretended chance to escape and were then shot while they ran！ The only difference between this method and others of the sort employed by Spanish American autocrats to enforce obedience lay in its purpose。 Of Diaz one might say what Bacon said of King Henry VII： 〃He drew blood as physicians do； to save life rather than to spill it。〃 If need be； here and there； disorder and revolt were stamped out by terrorism； but the Mexican people did not yield to authority from terror but rather from a thorough loyalty to the new regime。
Among the numerous measures of material improvement which Diaz undertook during his first term； the construction of railways was the most important。 The size of the country； its want of navigable rivers； and its relatively small and widely scattered population； made imperative the establishment of these means of communication。 Despite the misgivings of many intelligent Mexicans that the presence of foreign capital would impair local independence in some way； Diaz laid the foundations of future national prosperity by granting concessions to the Mexican Central and National Mexican companies； which soon began construction。 Under his successor a national bank was created； and when Diaz was again elected he readjusted the existing foreign debt and boldly contracted new debts abroad。
At the close of his first term； in 1880； a surplus in the treasury was not so great a novelty as the circumstance altogether unique in the political annals of Mexico…that Diaz turned over the presidency in peaceful fashion to his properly elected successor！ He did so reluctantly； to be sure； but he could not afford just yet to ignore his own avowed principle； which had been made a part of the constitution shortly after his accession。 Although the confidence he reposed in that successor was not entirely justified； the immense personal popularity of Diaz saved the prestige of the new chief magistrate。 Under his administration the constitution was amended in such a way as to deprive the Chief Justice of the privilege of replacing the President in case of a vacancy； thus eliminating that official from politics。 After his resumption of office； Diaz had the fundamental law modified anew； so as to permit the reelection of a President for one term only！ For this change； inconsistent though it may seem； Diaz was not alone responsible。 Circumstances had changed； and the constitution had to change with them。
Had the 〃United Provinces of Central America；〃 as they came forth from under the rule of Spain； seen fit to abstain from following in the unsteady footsteps of Mexico up to the time of the accession of Diaz to power； had they done nothing more than develop their natural wealth and utilize their admirable geographical situation； they might have become prosperous and kept their corporate name。 As it was； their history for upwards of forty years had little to record other than a momentary cohesion and a subsequent lapse into five quarrelsome little republicsthe 〃Balkan States〃 of America。 Among them Costa Rica had suffered least from arbitrary management or internal commotion and showed the greatest signs of advancement。
In Guatemala； however； there had arisen another Diaz； though a man quite inferior in many respects to his northern counterpart。 When Justo Rufino Barrios became President of that republic in 1873 he was believed to have conservative leanings。 Ere long； however； he astounded his compatriots by showing them that he was a thoroughgoing radical with methods of action to correspond to his convictions。 Not only did he keep the Jesuits out of the country but he abolished monastic orders altogether and converted their buildings to public use。 He made marriage a civil contract and he secularized the burying grounds。 Education he encouraged by engaging the services of foreign instructors； and he brought about a better observance of the law by the promulgation of new codes。 He also introduced railways and telegraph lines。 Since the manufacture of aniline dyes abroad had diminished the demand for cochineal； Barrios decided to replace this export by cultivating coffee。 To this end； he distributed seeds among the planters and furnished financial aid besides； with a promise to inspect the fields in due season and see what had been accomplished。 Finding that in many cases the seeds had been thrown away and the money wasted in drink and gambling； he ordered the guilty planters to be given fifty lashes； with the assurance that on a second offense he would shoot them on sight。 Coffee planting in Guatemala was pursued thereafter with much alacrity！
Posts in the government service Barrios distributed quite impartially among Conservatives and Democrats； deserving or otherwise； for he had them both well under control。 At his behest a permanent constitution was promulgated in 1880。 While he affected to dislike continual reelection； he saw to it nevertheless that he himself should be the sole can