the origin of the distinction of ranks- 第22部分

its　become　numerous；　a　deputy…judge　is　appointed；　from　whom　the　people　may　expect　more　attention　to　the　dispatch　of　business　than　the　chief　is　usually　inclined　to　bestow。　　　　　Of　this　gradual　progress　in　the　judicial　power　of　a　magistrate；　from　the　period　when　he　is　merely　an　arbiter；　to　that　when　he　is　enabled　to　execute　his　decrees；　and　to　call　parties　before　him；　several　vestiges　are　still　to　be　found　even　in　the　laws　of　polished　nations。　Among　the　Romans；　the　civil　judge　had　no　power　to　determine　a　law…suit；　unless　the　parties　had　previously　referred　the　cause　to　his　decision；　by　a　contract　which　was　called　litis…contestatio。　In　England；　at　this　day；　no　criminal　trial　can　proceed；　until　the　culprit；　by　his　pleading；　has　acknowledged　the　authority　of　the　court。　But　while　these　practices　were　retained；　from　a　superstitious　regard　to　ancient　usage；　a　ridiculous　circuit　was　made；　to　avoid　the　inconveniences　of　which　they　were　manifestly　productive。　At　Rome；　the　plaintiff；　after　having　desired　the　defendant　to　come　voluntarily　into　court；　was；　upon　his　refusal；　permitted　to　drag　him　by　the　throat；（12*）　and　by　the　English　law；　the　defendant；　who　stands　mute；　is　subjected　to　the　peine　fort　et　dure；　a　species　of　torture　intended　to　overcome　the　obstinacy　of　such　as　are　accused　of　atrocious　crimes。　　　　　According　to　the　systems　of　religion　which　have　prevailed　in　the　unenlightened　parts　of　the　world；　mankind　have　imagined　that　the　Supreme　Being　is　endowed　with　passions　and　sentiments　resembling　their　own；　and　that　he　views　the　extraordinary　talents　and　abilities　of　their　leader　with　such　approbation　and　esteem　as　these　qualities　never　fail　to　excite　in　themselves。　The　same　person　whom　they　look　upon　as　the　first　of　mortals；　is　naturally　believed　to　be　the　peculiar　favourite　of　Heaven；　and　is　therefore　regarded　as　the　most　capable　to　intercede　in　their　behalf；　to　explain　the　will　of　the　Deity；　and　to　point　out　the　most　effectual　means　to　avert　his　anger；　or　to　procure　his　favour。　　　　　The　admiration　of　a　military　leader　in　rude　countries；　has　frequently　proceeded　so　far　as　to　produce　a　belief　of　his　being　sprung　from　a　heavenly　original；　and　to　render　him　the　object　of　that　adoration　which　is　due　to　the　Supreme　Being。　　　　　In　some　of　the　American　tribes；　the　chiefs　carry　the　name　of　the　sun；　from　whom　they　are　supposed　to　be　descended；　and　whom　they　are　understood　to　represent　upon　earth。（13*）　The　Incas　of　Peru　derived　themselves；　in　like　manner；　from　the　sun。　In　the　kingdom　of　Loango；　the　prince　is　worshipped　as　a　god　by　his　subjects。　They　give　him　the　name　or　title　usually　bestowed　upon　the　Deity；　and　they　address　him　with　the　utmost　solemnity　for　rain　or　fruitful　seasons。　　　　　The　superstition　of　the　early　Greeks；　in　this　particular；　is　well　known；　which　was　carried　to　such　a　height；　as　enabled　almost　every　family　of　distinction　to　count　kindred　with　some　one　or　other　of　the　celestial　deities。　It　is　in　conformity　to　this　ancient　mythology　that　Racine　has　put　the　following　beautiful　address　into　the　mouth　of　Phedra。　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Noble　et　brillant　auteur　d'une　triste　famille；　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Toi；　dont　ma　m鑢e　osoit　se　vanter　d'阾re　fille；　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Qui　peut…阾re　rougis　du　trouble　o？tu　me　vois；　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Soleil；　je　te　viens　voir　pour　la　derni鑢e　fois！　　　　　The　same　principle　has　disposed　men　to　deify　those　heroes　who　have　rendered　themselves　illustrious　by　their　public　spirit；　and　their　eminent　abilities；　to　imagine　that　in　another　state　of　existence　they　retain　their　former　patriotic　sentiments；　and　being　possessed　of　superior　power；　continue；　with　unremitting　vigilance；　to　ward　off　the　misfortunes；　and　to　promote　the　happiness　of　their　people。　　　　　When　such　are　the　prevailing　dispositions　of　a　people；　the　chief　of　a　barbarous　tribe　is　naturally　raised　to　be　their　high　priest；　or　if　he　does　not　himself　exercise　that　office；　he　obtains　at　least　the　direction　and　superintendence　of　their　religious　concerns。　For　some　time　after　the　building　of　Rome；　the　leader　of　each　curia　or　tribe；　is　said　to　have　been　their　chief　ecclesiastical　officer。　A　similar　police　in　this　respect　appears　to　have　been　originally　established　in　the　cities　of　Greece；　and　has　probably　taken　place　among　the　primitive　inhabitants　of　most　countries。　It　may　easily　be　conceived　that　in　ignorant　nations；　guided　by　omens　and　dream；　and　subject　to　all　the　terrors　of　gross　superstition；　this　branch　of　power；　when　added　to　the　conduct　of　war；　and　the　distribution　of　justice；　will　be　an　engine　of　great　consequence　to　the　magistrate；　for　carrying　through　his　measures；　and　for　extending　his　authority。　　　　　As；　in　conducting　the　affairs　of　a　community；　in　the　management　of　what　relates　to　peace　or　war；　and　in　the　administration　of　justice；　various　abuses　are　apt　to　be　committed；　and　many　more　may　still　be　apprehended；　the　people　are　gradually　led；　by　experience　and　observation；　to　introduce　particular　statutes　or　laws；　in　order　to　correct　or　ascertain　their　practice　for　the　future。　Even　this　legislative　power；　by　which　all　the　other　branches　of　government　are　controlled　and　directed；　is　naturally　assumed　by　the　chief；　after　he　has　acquired　considerable　influence　and　authority。　When　the　members　of　his　tribe　have　become　in　a　great　measure　dependent　upon　him　with　regard　to　their　property；　they　are　in　no　condition　to　dispute　his　commands；　or　to　refuse　obedience　to　those　ordinances　which　he　issues　at　pleasure；　in　order　to　model　or　establish　the　constitution　of　the　society。　　　　　From　these　observations　we　may　form　an　idea　of　that　constitution　of　government　which　is　naturally　introduced　among　the　members　of　a　rude　tribe　or　village。　Each　of　the　different　families　of　which　it　is　composed　is　under　the　jurisdiction　of　the　father；　and　the　whole　community　is　subjected　to　a　chief　or　leader；　who　enjoys　a　degree　of　influence　and　authority　according　to　the　superior　abilities　with　which　he　is　endowed；　or　the　wealth　which　he　has　been　enabled　to　acquire。　　　　　The　rudest　form　of　this　government　may　be　discovered　among　the　Indians　of　America。　As　these　people　subsist；　for　the　most　part；　by　hunting　or　fishing；　they　have　no　means　of　obtaining　so　much　wealth　as　will　raise　any　one　person　greatly　above　his　companions。　They　are　divided　into　small　independent　villages；　in　each　of　which　there　is　a　chief；　who　is　their　principal　leader　in　war。　He　bears　the　name　of　that　particular　tribe　over　which　he　presides；　and　in　their　public　meetings　he　is　known　by　no　other。　His　authority；　though　greater　in　some　villages　than　in　others；　does　not　appear　in　any　of　them　to　be　very　considerable。　If　he　is　never　disobeyed；　it　is　because　he　knows　how　to　set　bounds　to　his　commands。　Every　family　has　a　right　to　name　an　assistant　to　the　chief；　and　the　several　heads　of　families　compose　an　assembly；　or　'council　of　the　elders'；　which　is　accustomed　to　deliberate　upon　all　matters　of　public　importance。（14*）　　　　　Each　individual　is　allowed；　in　ordinary　cases；　to　'take　up　the　hatchet'；　as　it　is　called；　or　make　war　upon　those　who　have　offended　him。　Enterprises　of　moment；　however；　are　seldom　undertaken　without　the　concurrence　of　the　assembly。　Each　family　has　a　jurisdiction　over　its　own　members。　But　the　members　of　different　families　are　at　liberty　to　settle　their　differences　in　what　manner　they　please；　and　the　chief；　or　council；　interfere　only　as　mediators；　or　as　arbiters；　unless　upon　the　commission　of　those　enormous　and　extraordinary　crimes　which　excite　the　general　indignation；　and　which；　from　a　sudden　impulse　of　resentment；　are　instantly　punished　with　severity。（15*）　　　　　From　the　accounts　which　have　been　given　of　the　wandering　tribes　of　shepherds　in　different　parts　of　the　world；　it　would　seem　that　their　government　is　of　the　same　nature；　though　the　power　of　their　leader　is　further　advanced；　according　to　the　degrees　of　wealth　which　they　enjoy。　In　proportion　to　the　extent　of　his　herds　and　flocks；　the　chief　is　exalted　above　all　the　other　members　of　the　tribe；　and　has　more　influence　in　directing　their　military　operations；　in　establishing　their　forms　of　judicial　procedure；　and　in　regulating　the　several　branches　of　their　public　administration。　Thus　the　captain　or　leader　of　a　tribe　among　the　Hottentots；　who　have　made　but　small　progress　in　the　pastoral　life；　and　among　the　wild　Arabs；　who　have　seldom　acquired　considerable　property；　appears　to　have　little　more　authority　than　among　the　savages　of　America。（16*）　The　great　riches；　on　the　other　hand；　which　are　frequenCy　acquired　by　those　numerous　bands　of　shepherds　inhabiting　the　vast　country　of　Tartary；　have　rendered　the　influence　of　the　chief　proportionably　extensive；　and　have　bestowed　upon　him　an　almost　unlimited　power；　which　commonly　remains　in　the　same　family；　and　is　transmitted　from　father　to　son　like　a　private　inheritance。　　　　　The　ancient　German　nations；　described　by　Caesar　and　Tacitus；　may　be　ranked　in　a　middle　situation　between　these　extremes；　having　probably　had　more　wealth　than　the　Hottentots；　or　most　of　the　wild　Arabs；　and　less　than　the　greater　part　of　the　Tartars。　While　they　remained　in　their　own　country；　they　were　not　altogether　strangers　to　the　cultivation　of　the　ground；　but　they　all　led　a　wandering　life；　and　seem　to　have　had　no　idea　of　property　in　land；　a　sufficient　proof　that　they　drew　their　subsistence　chiefly　from　their　cattle；　and　regarded　agriculture　as　only　a　secondary　employment。　Their　chiefs　appear　to　have　been　either　hereditary；　or　elected　from　those　families　who　had　been　longest　in　the　possession　of　opulent　fortunes；　but　their　military　expeditions　were　frequently　conducted　by　such　inferior　leaders；　as　happened　to　offer　their　service；　and　could　persuade　their　companions　to　follow　them。　In　time　of　peace；　justice　was　administered　by　the　respective　chiefs；　or　leading　men；　of　the　different　villages。（17*）　　　　　But　when　those　barbarians　had　sallied　forth　from　their　native　forests；　and　invaded　the　provinces　of　the　Roman　empire；　they　were　soon　led　to　a　great　improvement　in　their　circumstances。　The　countries　which　they　conquered　had　been　cultivated　and　civilized　under　the　Roman　dominion；　and　the　inhabitants；　though　generally　in　a　declining　state；　were　still　acquainted　with　husbandry　and　a　variety　of　arts。　It　was　to　be　expected；　therefore；　that；　while　the　Gothic　invaders；　during　a　long　course　of　bloody　wa