the origin of the distinction of ranks- 第30部分

bled　separately；　and　scarcely　any　but　those　who　held　a　certain　rank　in　the　state　were　admitted　to　the　general　assembly　any　more。'　Let。　hist。　sur　les　parl。　9。　In　early　times　the　Wittenagemote　is　called　'infinita　fidelium　multitudo。'　10。　Many　of　the　French　antiquaries　and　historians　have　believed　that　the　feudal　system　was　completed　under　their　kings　of　the　first　race。　（See　Mezeray；　hist。　de　France。　　Loyseau；　trait？des　seigneuries。　　Salvaing；　de　l'usage　des　fiefs。　）　Others　have　supposed　that　military　tenures　were　unknown　during　this　early　period；　and　were　introduced；　either　about　the　time　of　Charlemagne；　or　towards　the　end　of　the　second　race　of　kings；　or　about　the　time　of　Hugh　Capet。　（See　Boulainvilliers；　lettres　sur　les　parlemens　de　France。　　Chantereau　de　Fevre；　trait？des　fiefs。　　Henault；　abr。　de　l'hist。　de　France。　　Bouquet；　droit　publique　de　France；　etc。）　These　various　opinions　appear　to　have　arisen　from　a　different　view　of　the　facts　relating　to　the　subject；　and　here；　as　in　most　other　disputes；　the　truth　probably　lies　in　a　middle　between　the　opposite　extremes。　To　those　authors　who　observed　that；　soon　after　the　settlement　of　the　Franks　in　Gaul；　the　king　and　the　great　lords　had　a　considerable　number　of　vassals　dependent　upon　them　for　protection；　and　liable　in　military　service；　it　seemed　a　natural　inference　that　the　whole　land　in　the　country　was　held　by　military　tenure。　Those　on　the　contrary　who　discovered　that；　under　the　kings　of　the　first　and　second　race；　the　great　lords　were　in　possession　of　allodial　estates；　and　who　observed；　that；　after　the　reign　of　Hugh　Capet；　many　of　the　perquisites　incident　to　the　feudal　tenures　were　established；　thought　they　had　reason　from　thence　to　conclude　that　the　feudal　system　was　not　introduced　before　this　period。　　11。　From　similar　circumstances　it　has　been　a　subject　of　controversy；　whether　the　feudal　system　took　place　in　England　under　the　government　of　the　Saxon　monarchs；　or　whether　it　was　not　first　introduced　in　the　reign　of　William　the　Conqueror。　See　Wright's　Introduction　to　the　law　of　tenures；　chap。　2。　and　the　authorities　quoted　by　him　upon　both　sides　of　the　question。　　　　　Sir　Henry　Spelman　having　said　in　his　Glossary；　v。　feodum；　that　fiefs　were　brought　into　England　by　William　the　Conqueror；　and　the　judges　of　Ireland；　in　their　argument　in　the　case　of　defective　titles；　having　pointed　out　that　opinion　as　erroneous；　this　industrious　antiquary　was　thence　excited　to　write　a　treatise　upon　the　subject；　in　which　he　explains　his　meaning　to　be　nothing　more　but　that　in　England；　fiefs　were　not　rendered　hereditary　before　the　Norman　conquest　。　Thus；　after　having　stated　the　question；　in　the　beginning　of　his　treatise；　he　goes　on　as　follows：　'A　FEUD　is　said　to　be　usufructus　quidam　rei　immobilis　sub　conditione　fidei。　But　this　definition　is　of　too　large　extent　for　such　kind　of　feuds　as　our　question　must　consist　upon：　for　it　includeth　two　members　of　species　greatly　differing　the　one　from　the　other；　the　one　temporary　and　revocable　（as　those　at　will　or　for　years；　life　or　lives）；　the　other　hereditary　and　perpetual。　As　for　temporary　feuds；　which　（like　wild　fig…trees）　could　yield　none　of　the　feudal　fruits　of　wardship；　marriage；　relief；　etc。　unto　their　lords；　they　belong　nothing　unto　our　argument。'　　And　a　little　after　he　adds；　'But　this　kind　of　feud　（we　speak　of）　and　no　other；　is　that　only　whereof　our　law　taketh　notice；　though　time　hath　somewhat　varied　it　from　the　first　institution；　by　drawing　the　property　of　the　soil　from　the　lord　unto　the　tenant。　And　I　both　conceive　and　affirm　under　correction；　That　this　our　kind　of　feuds　being　perpetual　and　hereditary；　and　subject　to　wardship；　marriage；　and　relief；　and　other　feodal　services　were　not　in　use　among　our　Saxons；　nor　our　law　of　tenures　（whereon　they　depend）　once　known　unto　them。'　（Spelman's　treat。　on　feuds　and　tenures　by　knight…service；　chap。　1。　The　same　author；　in　another　part　of　his　treatise；　proceeds　to　shew　that；　in　England　among　the　Saxons；　the　estates　of　the　nobility　were　denominated　Boc…land；　and　were　held　in　full　property；　but　that　Folc…land；　or　the　land　of　the　lower　people；　was　held　under　condition　of　customary　services；　at　the　will　of　their　lord　the　Thane。　Ibid。　chap。　5。　　　　　It　is　hoped　the　above　remark　will　appear　not　improper；　because　the　authority　of　Spelman　upon　this　point；　has　been　considered　as　of　much　weight；　and　also　because　some　writers　appear　to　have　mistaken　his　opinion　by　consulting　the　passage　in　his　glossary；　without　attending　to　the　subsequent　treatise；　published　among　his　posthumous　works　by　Dr　Gibson。　　12。　Les　voyages　d'une　Philosophe。　Chapter　V　The　changes　produced　in　the　government　of　a　people　by　their　progress　in　Arts；　and　in　polished　Manners　Section　I　Circumstances；　in　polished　nation；　which　tend　to　increase　the　power　of　the　sovereign　　　　　The　advancement　of　a　people　in　the　arts　of　life；　is　attended　with　various　alterations　in　the　state　of　individuals；　and　in　the　whole　constitution　of　their　government。　　　　　Mankind；　in　a　rude　age；　are　commonly　in　readiness　to　go　out　to　war；　as　often　as　their　circumstances　require　it。　From　their　extreme　idleness；　a　military　expedition　is　seldom　inconvenient　for　them；　while　the　prospect　of　enriching　themselves　with　plunder；　and　of　procuring　distinction　by　their　valour；　renders　it　always　agreeable。　The　members　of　every　clan　are　no　less　eager　to　follow　their　chief；　and　to　revenge　his　quarrel；　than　he　is　desirous　of　their　assistance。　They　look　upon　it　as　a　privilege；　rather　than　a　burden；　to　attend　upon　him；　and　to　share　in　the　danger；　as　well　as　in　the　glory　and　profit　of　all　his　undertakings。　By　the　numberless　acts　of　hostility　in　which　they　are　engaged；　they　are　trained　to　the　use　of　arms；　and　acquire　experience　in　the　military　art；　so　far　as　it　is　then　understood。　Thus；　without　any　trouble　or　expense；　a　powerful　militia　is　constantly　maintained；　which；　upon　the　slightest　notice；　can　always　be　brought　into　the　field；　and　employed　in　the　defence　of　the　country。　　　　　When　Caesar　made　war　upon　the　Helvetii　they　were　able　to　muster　against　him　no　less　than　ninety…two　thousand　fighting　men；　amounting　to　a　fourth　part　of　all　the　inhabitants。　　　　　Hence　those　prodigious　swarms　which　issued；　at　different　times；　from　the　ill　cultivated　regions　of　the　north；　and　over…ran　the　several　provinces　of　the　Roman　empire。　Hence　too；　the　poor　but　superstitious　princes　of　Europe　were　enabled　to　muster　such　numerous　forces　under　the　banner　of　the　cross；　in　order　to　attack　the　opulent　nations　of　the　east；　and　to　deliver　the　holy　sepulchre　from　the　hands　of　the　infidels。　　　　　The　same　observation　will；　in　some　measure；　account　for　those　immense　armies　which　we　read　of　in　the　early　periods　of　history；　or　at　least　may　incline　us　to　consider　the　exaggerated　relations　of　ancient　authors；　upon　that　subject；　as　not　entirely　destitute　of　real　foundation。　　　　　These　dispositions；　arising　from　the　frequent　disorders　incident　to　a　rude　society；　are　of　course　laid　aside　when　good　order　and　tranquillity　begin　to　be　established。　When　the　government　acquires　so　much　authority　as　to　protect　individuals　from　oppression；　and　to　put　an　end　to　the　private　wars　which　subsisted　between　different　families；　the　people；　who　have　no　other　military　enterprises　but　those　which　are　carried　on　in　the　public　cause　of　the　nation；　become　gradually　less　accustomed　to　fighting；　and　their　martial　ardour　is　proportionably　abated。　　　　　The　improvement　of　arts　and　manufactures；　by　introducing　luxury；　contributes　yet　more　to　enervate　the　minds　of　men；　who；　according　as　they　enjoy　more　ease　and　pleasure　at　home；　feel　greater　aversion　to　the　hardships　and　dangers　of　a　military　life；　and　put　a　lower　value　upon　that　sort　of　reputation　which　it　affords。　The　increase　of　industry；　at　the　same　time；　creates　a　number　of　lucrative　employments　which　require　a　constant　attention；　and　gives　rise　to　a　variety　of　tradesmen　and　artificers；　who　cannot　afford　to　leave　their　business　for　the　transient　and　uncertain　advantages　to　be　derived　from　the　pillage　of　their　enemies。　　　　　In　these　circumstances　the　bulk　of　a　people　become　at　length　unable　or　unwilling　to　serve　in　war；　and　when　summoned　to　appear　in　the　field；　according　to　the　ancient　usage；　are　induced　to　offer　a　sum　of　money　instead　of　their　personal　attendance。　A　composition　of　this　kind　is　readily　accepted　by　the　sovereign　or　chief　magistrate；　as　it　enables　him　to　hire　soldiers　among　those　who　have　no　better　employment；　or　who　have　contracted　a　liking　to　that　particular　occupation。　The　forces　which　he　has　raised　in　this　manner　receiving　constant　pay；　and　having　no　other　means　of　procuring　a　livelihood；　are　entirely　under　the　direction　of　their　leader；　and　are　willing　to　remain　in　his　serVice　as　long　as　he　chooses　to　retain　them。　From　this　alteration　of　circumstances；　he　has　an　opportunity　of　establishing　a　proper　subordination　in　the　army；　and　according　as　it　becomes　fitter　for　action；　and；　in　all　its　motions；　capable　of　being　guided　and　regulated　with　greater　facility；　he　is　encouraged　to　enter　upon　more　difficult　enterprises；　as　well　as　to　meditate　more　distant　schemes　of　ambition。　His　wars；　which　were　formerly　concluded　in　a　few　weeks；　are　now　gradually　protracted　to　a　greater　length　of　time；　and　occasioning　a　greater　variety　of　operations；　are　productive　of　suitable　improvements　in　the　military　art。　　　　　After　a　numerous　body　of　troops　have　been　levied　at　considerable　expense；　and　have　been　prepared　for　war　by　a　long　course　of　discipline　and　experience；　it　appears　highly　expedient　to　the　sovereign　that；　even　in　time　of　peace；　some　part　of　them；　at　least；　should　be　kept　in　pay；　to　be　in　readiness　whenever　their　service　is　required。　Thus；　the　introduction　of　mercenary　forces　is　soon　followed　by　that　of　a　regular　standing　army。　The　business　of　a　soldier　becomes　a　distinct　profession；　which　is　appropriated　to　a　separate　order　of　men；　while　the　rest　of　the　inhabitants；　being　devoted　to　their　several　employments；　become　wholly　unaccustomed　to　arms；　and　the　preservation　of　their　lives　and　fortunes；　is　totally　devolved　upon　those　whom　they　are　at　the　charge　of　maintaining　for　that　purpose。　　　　　This　important　revolution；　with　respect　to　the　means　of　national　defence；　appears　to　have　taken　place　in　all　the　civilized　and　opulent　nations　of　antiquity。　In　all　the　Gr