the origin of the distinction of ranks- 第31部分

ce；　appears　to　have　taken　place　in　all　the　civilized　and　opulent　nations　of　antiquity。　In　all　the　Greek　states；　even　in　that　of　Sparta；　we　find　that　the　military　service　of　the　free　citizens　came；　from　a　change　of　manners；　to　be　regarded　as　burdensome；　and　the　practice　of　employing　mercenary　troops　was　introduced。　The　Romans　too；　before　the　end　of　the　republic；　had　found　it　necessary　to　maintain　a　regular　standing　army　in　each　of　their　distant　provinces。　　　　　In　the　modern　nations　of　Europe；　the　disuse　of　the　feudal　militia　was　an　immediate　consequence　of　the　progress　of　the　people　in　arts　and　manufactures；　after　which　the　different　sovereigns　were　forced　to　hire　soldiers　upon　particular　occasions；　and　at　last　to　maintain　a　regular　body　of　troops　for　the　defence　of　their　dominions。　In　France；　during　the　reign　of　Lewis　XIII；　and　in　Germany；　about　the　same　period；　the　military　system　began　to　be　established　upon　that　footing；　which　it　has　since　acquired　in　all　the　countries　of　Europe。　　　　　The　tendency　of　a　standing　mercenary　army　to　increase　the　power　and　prerogative　of　the　crown；　which　has　been　the　subject　of　much　declamation；　is　sufficiently　obvious。　As　the　army　is　immediately　under　the　conduct　of　the　monarch；　as　the　individuals　of　which　it　is　composed　depend　entirely　upon　him　for　preferment；　as；　by　forming　a　separate　order　of　men　they　are　apt　to　become　indifferent　about　the　rights　of　their　fellow…citizens；　it　may　be　expected　that；　in　most　cases；　they　will　be　disposed　to　pay　an　implicit　obedience　to　his　commands；　and　that　the　same　force　which　is　maintained　to　suppress　insurrections；　and　to　repel　invasions；　may　often　be　employed　to　subvert　and　destroy　the　liberties　of　the　people。　　　　　The　same　improvements　in　society；　which　give　rise　to　the　maintenance　of　standing　forces；　are　usually　attended　with　similar　changes　in　the　manner　of　distributing　justice。　It　has　been　already　observed　that；　in　a　large　community；　which　has　made　but　little　progress　in　the　arts；　every　chief　or　baron　is　the　judge　over　his　own　tribe；　and　the　king；　with　the　assistance　of　his　great　council；　exercises　a　jurisdiction　over　the　members　of　different　tribes　or　baronies。　From　the　small　number　of　law…suits　which　occur　in　the　ages　of　poverty　and　rudeness；　and　from　the　rapidity　with　which　they　are　usually　determined　among　a　warlike　and　ignorant　people；　the　office　of　a　judge　demands　little　attention；　and　occasions　no　great　interruption　to　those　pursuits　in　which　a　man　of　rank　and　distinction　is　commonly　engaged。　The　sovereign　and　the　nobility；　therefore；　in　such　a　situation；　may　continue　to　hold　this　office；　though；　in　their　several　courts；　they　should　appoint　a　deputy…judge　to　assist　them　in　discharging　the　duties　of　it。　But　when　the　increase　of　opulence　has　given　encouragement　to　a　variety　of　tedious　litigation；　they　become　unwilling　to　bestow　the　necessary　time　in　hearing　causes；　and　are　therefore　induced　to　devolve　the　whole　business　upon　inferior　judges；　who　acquire　by　degrees　the　several　branches　of　the　judicial　power；　and　are　obliged　to　hold　regular　courts　for　the　benefit　of　the　inhabitants。　Thus　the　exercise　of　jurisdiction　becomes　a　separate　employment；　and　is　committed　to　an　order　of　men；　who　require　a　particular　education　to　qualify　them　for　the　duties　of　their　office；　and　who；　in　return　for　their　serVice；　must　therefore　be　enabled　to　earn　a　livelihood　by　their　profession。　　　　　A　provision　for　the　maintenance　of　judges　is　apt；　from　the　natural　course　of　things；　to　grow　out　of　their　employment；　as；　in　order　to　procure　an　indemnification　for　their　attendance；　they　have　an　opportunity　of　exacting　fees　from　the　parties　who　come　before　them。　This　is　analagous　to　what　happens　with　respect　to　every　sort　of　manufacture；　in　which　an　artificer　is　commonly　paid　by　those　who　employ　him。　We　find；　accordingly；　that　this　was　the　early　practice　in　all　the　feudal　courts　of　Europe；　and　that　the　perquisites　drawn　by　the　judges；　in　different　tribunals；　yielded　a　considerable　revenue　both　to　the　king　and　the　nobles。　It　is　likely　that　similar　customs；　in　this　respect；　have　been　adopted　in　most　parts　of　the　world；　by　nations　in　the　same　period　of　their　advancement。　The　impropriety；　however；　of　giving　a　permission　to　these　exactions；　which　tend　to　influence　the　decisions　of　a　judge；　to　render　him　active　in　stirring　up　law…suits；　and　in　multiplying　the　form　of　his　procedure；　in　order　to　increase　his　perquisites；　these　pernicious　consequences　with　which　it　is　inseparably　connected；　could　not　fail　to　attract　the　notice　of　a　polished　people；　and　at　length　produced　the　more　perfect　plan　of　providing　for　the　maintenance　of　judges　by　the　appointment　of　a　fixed　salary　in　place　of　their　former　precarious　emoluments。　　　　　It　cannot　be　doubted　that　these　establishments；　of　such　mighty　importance；　and　of　so　extensive　a　nature；　must　be　the　source　of　great　expense　to　the　public。　In　those　early　periods；　when　the　inhabitants　of　a　country　are　in　a　condition　to　defend　themselves；　and　when　their　internal　disputes　are　decided　by　judges　who　claim　no　reward　for　their　interpositions；　or　at　least　no　reward　from　government；　few　regulations　are　necessary　with　respect　to　the　public　revenue。　The　king　is　enabled　to　maintain　his　family；　and　to　support　his　dignity；　by　the　rents　of　his　own　estate；　and；　in　ordinary　cases；　he　has　no　farther　demand。　But　when　the　disuse　of　the　ancient　militia　has　been　succeeded　by　the　practice　of　hiring　troops；　these　original　funds　are　no　longer　sufficient；　and　other　resources　must　be　provided　in　order　to　supply　the　deficiency。　By　the　happy　disposition　of　human　events；　the　very　circumstance　that　occasions　this　difficulty　appears　also　to　suggest　the　means　of　removing　it。　When　the　bulk　of　a　people　become　unwilling　to　serve　in　war；　they　are　naturally　disposed　to　offer　a　composition　in　order　to　be　excused　from　that　ancient　personal　service　which；　from　long　custom；　it　is　thought　they　are　bound　to　perform。　Compositions　of　this　nature　are　levied　at　first；　in　consequence　of　an　agreement　with　each　individual：　to　avoid　the　trouble　arising　from　a　multiplicity　of　separate　transactions；　they　are　afterwards　paid　in　common　by　the　inhabitants　of　particular　districts；　and　at　length　give　rise　to　a　general　assessment；　the　first　considerable　taxation　that　is　commonly　introduced　into　a　country。　　　　　If　this　tax　could　always　be　laid　upon　the　people　in　proportion　to　their　circumstances；　it　might　easily　be　augmented　in　such　a　manner　as　to　defray　all　the　expenses　of　government。　But　the　difficulty　of　ascertaining　the　wealth　of　individuals　makes　it　impossible　to　push　the　assessment　to　a　great　height；　without　being　guilty　of　oppression；　and　renders　it　proper　that　other　methods　of　raising　money　should　be　employed　to　answer　the　increasing　demands　of　the　society。　In　return　for　the　protection　which　is　given　to　merchants　in　carrying　their　goods　from　one　country　to　another；　it　is　apprehended　that　some　recompence　is　due　to　the　government；　and　that　certain　duties　may　be　levied　upon　the　exportation　and　importation　of　commodities。　The　security　enjoyed　by　tradesmen　and　manufacturers；　from　the　care　and　vigilance　of　the　magistrate；　is　held　also　to　lay　a　foundation　for　similar　exactions　upon　the　retail　of　goods；　and　upon　the　inland　trade　of　a　nation。　Thus　the　payment　of　customs；　and　of　what；　in　a　large　sense；　may　be　called　excise；　is　introduced　and　gradually　extended。　　　　　It　is　not　proposed　to　enter　into　a　comparison　of　these　different　taxes；　or　to　consider　the　several　advantages　and　disadvantages　of　each。　Their　general　effects　in　altering　the　political　constitution　of　a　state　are　more　immediately　the　object　of　the　present　enquiry。　With　respect　to　this　point；　it　merits　attention　that；　as　the　sovereign　claims　a　principal　share　at　least；　in　the　nomination　of　public　officers；　as　he　commonly　obtains　the　chief　direction　in　collecting　and　disposing　of　the　revenue　which　is　raised　upon　their　account；　he　is　enabled　thereby　to　give　subsistence　to　a　great　number　of　persons；　who；　in　times　of　faction　and　disorder；　will　naturally　adhere　to　his　party；　and　whose　interest；　in　ordinary　cases；　will　be　employed　to　support　and　to　extend　his　authority。　These　circumstances　contribute　to　strengthen　the　hands　of　the　monarch；　to　undermine　and　destroy　every　opposite　power；　and　to　increase　the　general　bias　towards　the　absolute　dominion　of　a　single　person。　Section　II　Other　circumstances；　which　contribute　to　advance　the　privileges　of　the　people　　　　　After　viewing　those　effects　of　opulence　and　the　progress　of　arts　which　favour　the　interest　of　the　crown；　let　us　turn　our　attention　to　other　circumstances；　proceeding　from　the　same　source；　that　have　an　opposite　tendency；　and　are　manifestly　conducive　to　a　popular　form　of　government。　　　　　In　that　early　period　of　agriculture　when　manufactures　are　unknown；　persons　who　have　no　landed　estate　are　usually　incapable　of　procuring　subsistence　otherwise　than　by　serving　some　opulent　neighbour；　by　whom　they　are　employed；　according　to　their　qualifications；　either　in　military　serVice；　or　in　the　several　branches　of　husbandry。　Men　of　great　fortune　find　that　the　entertaining　a　multitude　of　servants；　for　either　of　these　purposes；　is　highly　conducive　both　to　their　dignity　and　their　personal　security；　and　in　a　rude　age；　when　people　are　strangers　to　luxury；　and　are　maintained　from　the　simple　productions　of　the　earth；　the　number　of　retainers　who　may　be　supported　upon　any　particular　estate　is　proportionably　great。　　　　　In　this　situation；　persons　of　low　rank；　have　no　opportunity　of　acquiring　an　affluent　fortune；　or　of　raising　themselves　to　superior　stations；　and　remaining　for　ages　in　a　state　of　dependence；　they　naturally　contract　such　dispositions　and　habits　are　as　sited　to　their　circumstances。　They　acquire　a　sacred　veneration　for　the　person　of　their　master；　and　are　taught　to　pay　an　unbounded　submission　to　his　authority。　They　are　proud　of　that　servile　obedience　by　which　they　seem　to　exalt　his　dignity；　and　consider　it　as　their　duty　to　sacrifice　their　lives　and　their　possessions　in　order　to　promote　his　interest；　or　even　to　gratify　his　capricious　humour。　　　　　But　when　the　arts　begin　to　be　cultivated　in　a　country；　the　labouring　part　of　the　inhabitants　are　enabled　to　procure　subsistence　in　a　different　manner。　They　are　led　to　make　proficiency　in　particular　trades