vill3- 第13部分

39。　A　very　remarkable　instance　of　the　way　in　which　rights　of　common　were　divided　and　arranged　between　lords　and　villains　is　afforded　by　the　Court　Rolls　of　Brightwaltham。　Maitland；　Manorial　Rolls；　Selden　Soc。　ii。　172。　I　shall　have　to　discuss　the　Case　in　the　Fifth　Chapter　of　this　Essay。

Chapter　3

Rural　Work　and　Rents

　　　　Our　best　means　of　judging　of　the　daily　work　in　an　English　village　of　the　thirteenth　century　is　to　study　the　detailed　accounts　of　operations　and　payments　imposed　on　the　tenants　for　the　benefit　of　a　manorial　lord。　Surveys；　extents；　or　inquisitions　were　drawn　up　chiefly　for　the　purpose　of　settling　these　duties；　and　the　wealth　of　material　they　afford　enables　us　to　form　a　judgment　as　to　several　interesting　questions。　It　tells　directly　of　the　burden　which　rural　workmen　had　to　bear　in　the　aristocratical　structure　of　society；　it　gives　indirectly　an　insight　into　all　the　ramifications　of　labour　and　production　since　the　dues　received　by　the　lord　were　a　kind　of　natural　percentage　upon　all　the　work　of　the　tenants；　the　combination　of　its　details　into　one　whole　affords　many　a　clue　to　the　social　standing　and　history　of　the　peasant　classes　of　which　we　have　been　treating。　　　　　Let　us　begin　by　a　survey　of　the　different　kinds　of　labour　duties　performed　by　the　dependent　holdings　which。　clustered　round　the　manorial　centre。　Foremost　stands　ploughing　and　the　operations　connected　with　it。　The　cultivation　of　the　demesne　soil　of　a　manor　depended　largely　on　the　help　of　the　peasantry。　By　the　side　of　the　ploughs　and　plough…teams　owned　by　the　lord　himself；　the　plough…teams　of　his　villains　are　made　to　till　his　land；　and　manorial　extents　commonly　mention　that　the　demesne　portion　has　to　be　cultivated　by　the　help　of　village　customs；　'cum　consuetudinibus　villae。'（1*）　The　duties　of　every　householder　in　this　respect　are　reckoned　up　in　different　ways。　Sometimes　every　dependent　plough　has　its　number　of　acres　assigned　to　it；　and　the　joint　owners　of　its　team　are　left　to　settle　between　themselves　the　proportions　in　which　they　will　have　to　co…operate　for　the　performance　of　the　duty。（2*）　In　most　cases　the　'extent'　fixes　the　amount　due　from　each　individual　holder。　For　instance；　every　virgater　is　to　plough　one　acre　in　every　week。　This　can　only　mean　that　one　acre　of　the　lord's　land　is　reckoned　on　every　single　virgate　in　one　week；　without　any　reference　to　the　fact　that　only　one　part　of　the　team　is　owned　by　the　peasant。　If；　for　example；　there　were　four　virgaters　to　share　in　the　ownership　of　the　plough；　the　expression　under　our　notice　would　mean　that　every　team　has　to　plough　four　acres　in　the　week。（3*）　But　the　ploughs　may　be　small；　or　the　virgaters　exceptionally　wealthy；　and　their　compound　plough　team　may　have　to　cultivate　only　three　acres　or　even　less。　The　lord　in　this　case　reckons　with　labour…weeks　and　acres；　not　with　teams　and　days…work。　A　third　possibility　would　be　to　base　the　reckoning　on　the　number　of　days　which　a　team　or　a　holder　has　to　give　to　the　lord。（4*）　A　fourth；　to　lay　on　the　imposition　in　one　lump　by　requiring　a　certain　number　of　acres　to　be　tilled；　or　a　certain　number　of　days　of　ploughing。（5*）　It　must　be　added；　that　the　peasants　have　often　to　supplement　their　ploughing　work　by　harrowing；　according　to　one　of　these　various　systems　of　apportionment。（6*）　　　　　The　duties　here　described　present　only　a　variation　of　the　common　'week…work'　of　the　peasant；　its　application　to　a　certain　kind　of　labour。　They　could　on　occasion　be　replaced　by　some　other　work；（7*）　or　the　lord　might　lose　them　if　the　time　assigned　for　them　was　quite　unsuitable　for　work。（8*）　There　is　another　form　of　ploughing　called　gafol…earth；　which　has　no　reference　to　any　particular　time…limits。　A　patch　of　the　lord's　land　is　assigned　to　the　homage　for　cultivation；　and　every　tenant　gets　his　share　in　the　work　according　to　the　size　of　his　holding。　Gafol…earth　is　not　only　ploughed　but　mostly　sown　by　the　peasantry。（9*）　　　　　A　third　species　of　ploughing…duty　is　the　so…called　averearth。　or　grass…earth。　This　obligation　arises　when　the　peasants　want　more　pasture　than　they　are　entitled　to　use　by　their　customary　rights　of　common。　The　lord　may　grant　the　permission　to　use　the　pasture　reserved　for　him；　and　exacts　ploughings　in　return　according　to　the　number　of　heads　of　cattle　sent　to　the　pasturage。（10*）　Sometimes　the　same　imposition　is　levied　when　more　cattle　are　sent　to　the　commons　than　a　holding　has　a　right　to　drive　on　them。（11*）　It　is　not　impossible　that　in　some　cases　the　very　use　of　rights　of　common　Was　made　dependent　on　the　performance　of　such　duties。（12*）　A　kindred　exaction　was　imposed　for　the　use　of　the　meadows。（13*）　Local　variations　have；　of　course；　to　be　taken　largely　into　account　in　all　such　matters：　the　distinction　between　gafol…earth　and　grass…earth；　for　instance；　though　drawn　very　sharply　in　most　cases；　gets　somewhat　confused　in　others。　　　　　Manorial　records　mention　a　fourth　variety　of　ploughing　work　under　the　name　of　ben…earth；　precariae　carucarum。　This　is　extra　work　in　opposition　to　the　common　ploughings　described　before。（14*）　It　is　assumed　that　the　subject　population　is　ready　to　help　the　lord　for　the　tillage　of　his　land；　even　beyond　the　customary　duties　imposed　on　it。　It　sends　its　ploughs　three　or　four　times　a　year　'out　of　love；'　and　'for　the　asking。'　It　may　be　conjectured　how　agreeable　this　duty　must　have　been　in　reality；　and　indeed　by　the　side　of　its　common　denominations；　as　boon…work　and　asked…work；　we　find　much　rougher　terms　in　the　speech　of　some　districts　　it　is　deemed　unlawenearth　and　godlesebene。（15*）　It　must　be　said；　however；　that　the　lord　generally　provided　food　on　these　occasions；　and　even　went　so　far　as　to　pay　for　such　extra　work。　　　　　Other　expressions　occur　in　certain　localities；　which　are　sometimes　difficult　of　explanation。　Lentenearth；（16*）　in　the　manors　of　Ely　Minster；　means　evidently　an　extra　ploughing　in　Lent。　The　same　Ely　records　exhibit　a　ploughing　called　Filstnerthe　or　Filsingerthe；（17*）　which　may　be　identical　with　the　Lentenearth　just　mentioned：　a　fastnyngseed　（18*）　occurs　at　any　rate　which　seem　s　connected　with　the　ploughing　under　discussion。　The　same　extra　work　in　Lent　is　called　Tywe　（19*）　in　the　Custumal　of　Bleadon；　Somersetshire。　When　the　ploughing…work　is　paid　for　it　may　receive　the　name　of　penyearth。（20*）　The　Gloucester　survey　speaks　of　the　extra　cultivation　of　an　acre　called　Radacre；　and　the　Ely　surveys　of　an　extra　rood　'de　Rytnesse。'（21*）　I　do　not　venture　to　suggest　an　explanation　for　these　last　terms；　and　I　need　not　say　that　it　would　be　easy　to　collect　a　much　greater　number　of　such　terms　in　local　use　from　the　manorial　records。　It　is　sufficient　for　my　purpose　to　mark　the　chief　distinctions。　　　　　All　the　other　labour…services　are　performed　more　or　less　on　the　same　system　as　the　ploughings；　with　the　fundamental　difference　that　the　number　of　men　engaged　in　them　has　to　be　reckoned　with　more　than　the　number　of　beasts。　The　extents　are　especially　full　of　details　in　their　descriptions　of　reaping　or　mowing　corn　and　grass；　the　process　of　thrashing　is　also　mentioned；　though　more　rarely。　In　the　case　of　meadows　（mederipe）　sometimes　their　dimensions　are　made　the　basis　of　calculation；　sometimes　the　number　of　work…days　which　have　to　be　employed　in　order　to　cut　the　grass。（22*）　As　to　the　corn…harvest；　every　holding　has　its　number　of　acres　assigned　to　it；（23*）　or　else　it　is　enacted　that　every　house　has　to　send　so　many　workmen　during　a　certain　number　of　days。（24*）　If　it　is　said　that　such　and　such　a　tenant　is　bound　to　work　on　the　lord's　field　at　harvest…time　with　twenty…eight　men；　it　does　not　mean　that　he　has　to　send　out　such　a　number　every　time；　but　that　he　has　to　furnish　an　amount　of　work　equivalent　to　that　performed　by　twenty…eight　grown…up　labourers　in　one；　day。　It　may　be　divided　into　fourteen　days'　work　of　two　labourers；　or　into　seven　days'　of　four；　and　so　forth。　　　　　Harvest…time　is　the　most　pressing　time　in　the　year　for　rural　work；　it　is　especially　important　not　to　lose　the　opportunity　presented　by　fine　weather　to　mow　and　garner　in　the　crop　before　rain；　and　there　may　be　only　a　few　days　of　such　weather　at　command。　For　this　reason　extra　labour　is　chiefly　required　during　this　season；　and　the　village　people　are　frequently　asked　to　give　extra　help　in　connexion　with　it。　The　system　of　precariae　is　even　more　developed　on　these　occasions　than　in　the　case　of　ploughing。（25*）　All　the　forces　of　the　village　are　strained　to　go　through　the　task；　all　the　houses　which　open　on　the　street　send　their　labourers；（26*）　and　in　most　cases　the　entire　population　has　to　join　in　the　work；　with　the　exception　of　the　housewives　and　perhaps　of　the　marriageable　daughters。（27*）　The　landlord　treats　the　harvesters　to　food　in　order　to　make　these　exertions　somewhat　more　palatable　to　them。（28*）　These　'love…meals'　are　graduated　according　to　a　set　system。　If　the　men　are　called　out　only　once；　they　get　their　food　and　no　drink：　these　are　'dry　requests。'　If　they　are　made　to　go　a　second　time；　ale　is　served　to　them　（precariae　cerevisiae）。　The　mutual　obligations　of　lords　and　tenantry　are　settled　very　minutely；（29*）　the　latter　may　have　to　mow　a　particular　acre　with　the　object　of　saying　'thanks'　for　some　concession　on　the　part　of　the　lord。（30*）　The　same　kind　of　'requests'　are　in　use　for　mowing　the　meadows。　The　duties　of　the　peasants　differ　a　great　deal　according　to　size　of　their　holdings　and　their　social　position。　The　greater　number　have　of　course　to　work　with　scythe　and　sickle；　but　the　more　wealthy　are　called　upon　to　supervise　the　rest；　to　ride　about　with　rods　in　their　hands。（31*）　On　the　other　hand；　a　poor　woman　holds　a　messuage；　and　need　do　no　more　than　carry　water　to　the　mowers。（32*）　　　　　A　very　important　item　in　the　work　necessary　for　medieval　husbandry　was　the　business　of　carrying　produce　from　one　part　of　the　country　to　the　other。　The　manors　of　a　great　lord　were　usually　dispersed　in　several　counties；　and　even　in　the　case　of　small　landowners　it　was　not　very　easy　to　arrange　a　regular　communication　with　the　market。　The　obligation　to　provide　horses　and　carts　gains　in　importance　accordingly。（33*）　These　averagia　are　laid　out　for　short　and　long　distances；　and　the　peasants　have　to　take　their　turn　at　them　one　after　the　other。（34*）　They　were　bound　to　carry　corn　to　London　or　Bristol　according　to　the　size　of　their　holdings。（35*）　Special　importance　w